.- - ·-. __ =...-~_ RESTRICTED THIS REVISED EDITION SUPERSEDES THE ORIGINAL (TAN COVERED) PILOT TRAINING MANUAL FOR THE LIBERATOR. -~ COPIES OF THE LATTER ARE RESCINDED. AAF MANUAL No. 50-1 ~ MUSEUM OF FLIGHT PROPERTY , OF ARCHIVES DONATED IN MEMORY OF GEORGE RAYMOND • LSS-1-2/1 For Fuf'M" C:t11trotim1s 9404 East Marginal Way South• Seattle, Washington 98108 RESTRICTED PILOT TRAINING MANUAL ... 0 • ... z Ill .. -• Ill • ,. ... 0 • Published for Headquarters, AAF Office of Assistant Chief of Air Staff, Training By Headquarters, AAF, Office of Flying Safety Revised 1 May, 1945 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS MANUAL MAY BE OBTAINED UPON REQUEST TO HQ AAF, OFFICE OF FLYING SAFETY, SAFETY EDUCATION DIVISION, WINSTON-SALEM 1, N. C. RESTRICTED WM. B. BURFORD PRINTING CO. 5·1 !·45- 22, 000 AAF Manual No. 50-12 . RESTRICTED THIS MANUAL is the text for your training as a B-24 pilot and air plane commander. The Air Forces' most experienced training and supervisory personnel have collaborated to make it a complete exposition of what your pilot duties are, how each duty will be performed, and why it must be performed in the manner prescribed. The techniques and procedures described in this book are standard and mandatory. In this respect the manual serves the dual purpose of a training checklist and a working handbook. Use it to make sure that you ~earn everything described herein. Use it to study and review the essential facts concerning everything taught. Such additional self-study and review will not only advance your training, but will alleviate the burden of your already overburdened instructors. This training manual does not replace the Technical Orders for the airplane, which will always be your primary source of informa tion concerning the B-24 so long as you fly it. This is essentially the textbook of the B-24. Used properly, it will enable you to utilize I the pertinent Technical Orders to even greater advantage. COMMANDING GENERAL, ARMY AIR FORCES RESTRICTED RESTRICTED The B-24 is used today all over the world. It is the workhorse of ev,~ry air force. Its formations are roaring over mountains, seas, desert, and arctic, laden with tons of destruction for the enemy. Liberators are being used more and more in combat for one conclusive reason: The B-24 has everything-speed, climbing power, carry ing ability, and above all, guts. The B-24 can take it and dish it out. The B-24's combat rec- 4 ord is best told by those who have flown it through flak and swarming fighters, in mission after mission, and know first hand what it can do. WHAT COMBAT LEADERS SAY: "The B-24 has proved itself capable of deliver ing tremendous blows against the enemy over extremely long ranges, under unfavorable weather conditions and against heavy enemy opposition. If the gunners are properly trained, they can create havoc among enemy fighters. I have seen formations of B-24's penetrate heav ily defended battle zones, completely destroy their target, fight off twice their number of enemy fighters and, through their maneuver ability and firepower, destroy over 50% of all attacking enemy fighters without loss to them selves." There and Back "In the words of the old-time pilots, 'She'll take you there and bring you back.' I have seen B-24's shot up by 88-mm. anti-aircraft so badly RESTRICTED it seemed impossible that the airplane could stay in the air. One pilot brought his B-24 back to base with half the rudder control completely shot away. We have had airplanes come back under almost unbelievable handicaps: with pro pellers shot off; with direct hits in gasoline cells by 20, 40 and 88-mm. explosive shells; with the 2 lower engine supports knocked completely off; with both ailerons gone; after complete loss of rudder control; after loss of elevator control. Airplanes have returned with controls so badly damaged they were landed on autopilot." Maneuverability "A good gunner will conserve his ammunition and make every bullet count. I was caught once, separated from a formation, with no guns working and 500 miles behind enemy front lines, by an enemy plane which had a full load of ammunition. We successfully evaded his at tacks and forced him to expend all his ammuni tion. Maneuverability alone enabled us to re turn to base. One B-24 was separated from for mation over the target and attacked by 15 ME 109's. Through skillful maneuvering and use of firepower this crew shot down 8 of the enemy fighters in a running battle of 100 miles and re- t ·-· turned safely to base. In another instance a B-24 with the tail turret out was attacked in a running battle. Enemy fighters knew the vul nerable spot and, as they approached from the rear, the airplane was maneuvered so that the top turret gunner could fire at them. Nine enemy planes were shot down in this manner." Instrument Flying "The B-24 is a good instrument airplane. About 80% of our flying was instrument or formation or a combination of the two. It is a good indica tion of your flying ability and of the flight char acteristics of the airplane when you can fly formation for 5 or 6 hours and do it well and then go back on instruments and fly a good compass course for 3 or 4 hours. The ability to get your plane back sometimes depends on this. I know that during training in the U. S. it is pretty hard to sit under a hood and fly instru ments when you could just be cruising around. It's hard to sit in a Link trainer for hours at a time and work out your procedure. But it pays RESTRICTED RESTRICTED off when you get out where you have to be good in formation and instrument flying." Guts "The housing around the propeller and 3 cyl inders of our No. 4 engine were shot out. Two feet of prop on No. 1 engine was smashed, tear ing a foot-and-a-half hole in the left aileron. The engine was vibrating like a bucking bronco. And we had a wing cell leak in No. 3. We were both flying that airplane with every ounce of skill we possessed. We put on 10° of flaps to get the best lift without too much drag, and kept our wings straight by using rudder. We mud dled through the fighter attack and staggered away from the target on 2½ engines. To gain altitude to cross a mountain range, we threw out everything that was movable, including oxygen bottles, gas masks, ammunition, radio equipment, and everything a screwdriver could get loose. Somehow she brought us back. We had to crash-land the plane but nobody was hurt. The first thing I did after we got away from the plane was to kiss the navigator." Come-Back "One of the B-24's was hit on the left wing, jus:t outside the outboard engine. ,I thought the wing would fall off, since the shot went right through the main structure. You could have dropped a barrel through the hole, but the air plane continued to fly formation. A few seconds later a direct hit ripped a big hole in the bomb bay, severed the aileron cable, knocked out the hydraulic and electric systems and the oxygen system. We escorted it 800 miles to the base. It landed without ailerons and without brakes and was back in service in about 3 weeks." Range A fully loaded Liberator crossed the Atlantic in 6 hours and 12 minutes. The raid on the Rumanian oil refineries was a round trip of 2500 miles. Raids from Midway Island on J ap held Wake Island involved a round trip of 2400 miles. British Air Chief Marshal Sir Chris topher Courtney termed the Liberator the "most successful of all anti-submarine aircraft now used by the United Nations." The combat record of the B-24 speaks for itself. 5 RESTRICTED Here's where they separate the men from the boys. You can be one of the best B-24 pilots ever trained and still fail as an airplane com mander. In addition to qualifying yourself as a top-flight pilot, you have the job of building a fighting team that you can rely on in any emer gency. Failure of any member of the crew to do the right thing at the right time may mean failure of your mission, unnecessary loss of life and possible loss of your airplane. 6 You Can 1t Pass the Buck Your authority as airplane commander carries with it responsibility that you can not shirk. Your engineer is a trained specialist, but his training is incomplete. He knows how to trans fer fuel, but does he know how to transfer it in the particular airplane you are flying? It isn't enough that he thinks so. You must know what he knows. It is up to you to perfect the basic training he has been given. An oversight RESTRICTED of this kind cost a B-24 and 2 lives in the Pacific. You are now flying a 10-man weapon. It is your airplane, and your crew. You are respon sible for the safety and efficiency of the crew at all times-not just when you are flying, but for the full 24 hours of every day while you are in command. Your crew is made up of specialists. Each man-whether he is the navigator, bombardier, engineer, radio operator, or one of the gunners -is an expert in his line. But how well he does his job, and how efficiently he plays his part as a member of your combat team, will depend to a great extent on how well you play your own part as the airplane commander. Know Your Crew Learn all you can about each member of your crew just as soon after he joins your outfit as possible. Where is his home? What is his edu cation? Is he married? What jobs has he had? Where did he get his flight training? How does he like the idea of being assigned to a B-24? Your job is to_ learn all you can about each crew member so you can evaluate his qualifica tions, initiative, proficiency and reliability. Know His Personal Habits It is no business of yours whether a crew mem ber spends his free hours in prayer, gambling, or hunting turtle's eggs unless these habits in terfere with the proper performance of · his duty. Then his business is your business. You can't afford to see a mission jeopardized be cause a crew member doesn't get enough sleep, comes to duty with a hangover, starts on a high altitude mission with gas-producing food in his stomach, or is so distracted by worry that he cannot concentrate on the task at hand. See that your men are properly quartered, clothed, and fed. There will be many times, when your airplane and crew are away from the home base, when you may even have to carry your interest to the extent of financing them yourself. Remember always that you are the commanding officer of a miniature army-a specialized army; and that morale is one of the biggest problems for the commander of any, army, large or small. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED Crew Discipline Your success as the airplane commander will depend in a large measure on the respect, con fidence, and trust which the crew feels for you. It will depend also on how well you maintain crew discipline. Your position commands obedience and re spect. This does not mean that you have to be stiff-necked, overbearing, or aloof. Such ·char acteristics certainly will defeat your purpose. Be friendly, understanding, but firm. Know your job, and, by the way you perform your duties daily, impress upon the crew that you do know your job. Keep close to your men, and let them realize that· their interests are upper most in your mind. Make fair decisions, after due consideration of all the facts involved; but make them in such a way as to impress upon your crew that your decisions are made to stick. Crew discipline is vitally important, but it need not be as difficult a problem as it sounds. Good discipline in an air crew breeds comrade ship and high morale. And the combination is unbeatable. You can be a good CO and still be a regular guy. You can command respect from your men, and still be one of them. "To associate discipline with informality, comradeship, a leveling of rank, and at times a shift in actual command away from the leader, may seem paradoxical," says a former combat group commander. "Certainly, it isn't down the military groove. But it is discipline just the same-and the kind of discipline that brings success in the air." Crew Training Train your crew as a team. Keep abreast of their training. It won't be possible for you to follow each man's courses of instruction, but you can keep a close check on his record and progress. Get to know each man's duties and problems. Know his job, and try to devise ways and means of helping him to perform it more effi ciently. Each crew member naturally feels great pride in the importance of his particular spe cialty. You can help him to develop this pride 7 RESTRICTED to include the manner in which he performs that duty. To do that you must possess .and maintain a very thorough knowledge of each man's job and the problems he has to deal with in the performance of his duties. Are You Ready to Fight? Are your guns working? The only way you can be sure is to know how competent and re liable your gunners are. It is uncomfortable to get caught by a swarm of enemy fighters and find that your guns won't function. What about your navigator? You can't do his job for him throughout training in the states and expect him to guide you safely over a thousand miles of water to a speck on the map. Remember that there aren't any check points in the ocean and you have to rely on your navigator. Your bombs miss the target. Long hours of flying wasted ... why? It may be because the bombsight gyro was not turned on long enough in advance or because the bombsight was not kept warm by means of the heater so that when the bombardier put his warm face to the eye piece, it fogged up and was . unusable. Who is at fault? The bombardier is, of course, primarily to blame, but in the background there is usual ly lack of leadership, guidance and inspiration. No crew is ever any more on the ball than its airplane commander. Practical Questions 1. Are you the airplane commander, qualify ing yourself to do justice to your crew? 2. Can all of your crew fly at high altitudes without discomfort or physical handicap? 3. Does anyone in your crew get airsick? 4. Are the turret gunners too big for their turrets? 5. Can the copilot take over in emergency? 6. Does the radio operator understand DF aids? 7. Do the gunners know how to unload and stow their guns? 8. Do the engineer and the copilot ( and do you) know how to use the load adjuster and how to load the airplane properly? 9. Do the engineer and copilot (and you) use 8 the control charts on every flight to check your knowledge of power settings and the efficient performance of your airplane? 10. Does your crew know emergency proce dures and signals? 11. Is each member of your crew properly equipped? 12. What can you do to prevent or relieve anoxia, air sickness, fatigue? 13. Who is qualified to render first aid? 14. How's the morale of your outfit? Are they eager or do they sluff off? 15. How will your crew react in emergency? These are just a few of the practical questions you as airplane commander must be able to answer to your own satisfaction. RULES TO BE ENFORCED ON EVERY FLIGHT BY THE AIRPLANE COMMANDER 1. Smoking a. No smoking in airplane at an altitude of less than 1000 feet. b. No smoking during fuel transfer. c. Never carry lighted cigarette through bomb bays. d. Never attempt to throw a lighted cigarette from the airplane. Put it out first. 2. Parachutes a. All persons aboard will wear parachute harness at all times from takeoff to landing. b. Each person aboard will have a parachute on every flight. 3. Propellers a. No person will walk through propellers at any time whether they are turning or not. b. No person will leave the airplane when propellers are turning unless personally or dered to do so by the airplane commander. 4. Oxygen Masks a. Oxygen masks will be carried on all day flights where altitude may exceed 10,000 feet RESTRICTED and on all night flights, regardless of altitude. b. Day: All persons will use oxygen starting at 7000 to 10,000 feet on all day flights where altitude at any time will exceed 10,000 feet. c. Night: All persons will use oxygen from the ground up on all flights during which altitude may exceed 10,000 feet. 5. Training a. Tell your crew the purpose of each mis sion and what you expect each to accomplish. b. Keep the crew busy throughout the flight. Get position reports from the navigator; send them out through the radio operator. Put the engineer to work in the cruise control and maximum range charts. Require the copilot to keep a record of engine performance. Give · them a workout. Encourage them to use their skill. Let them sleep in their own bunks-not RESTRICTED in a B-24. A team is an active outfit. Make the most of every practice mission. c. Practice all emergency procedures at least once a week; bailout, ditching and fire drill. 6. Inspections a. Check your airplane with reference to the particular mission you are undertaking. Check everything. b. Check your crew for equipment, prepared ness and understanding. 7. lnterphone a. Keep the interphone chattering. Ask for immediate reports of aircraft, trains, and ships just as you would expect them in combat-with proper identification. b. Require interphone reports every 15 min utes from all crew men when on oxygen. SUGGESTED COMBAT CREW DUTY ASSIGNMENTS PILOT COPILOT NAVIGATOR BOMBARDIER Principal duty : Secondary duty: Added duty Principal duty : Secondary duty: Added duty Added duty Added duty Principal duty ; Secondary duty: Added duty Added duty Added duty Principal duty : Secondary duty: Added duty Added duty RESTRICTED Airplane Commander Pilot Navigation Specialist Assistant Airplane Commander Airplane Engineering Officer and Assistant Pilot Fire Officer Navigational Specialist Gunfire Control Officer Navigator Qualified as Nose Turret Gunner Assistant Bombardier Oxygen and Equipment Officer First Aid Specialist Bombardier Qualified as Nose Turret Gunner Airplane Armament Officer Navigation Specialist 9 RESTRICTED AERIAL ENGINEER Principal duty : Aerial Engineer Secondary duty: Added duty Added duty Added duty Added duty Top Turret Gunner Qualified for Copilot Duties Parachute Officer First Aid Specialist Assistant Radio Operator RADIO OPERATOR Principal duty : Secondary duty: Radio Operator Waist Gunner Added duty Added duty Added duty Assistant Airplane Engineer First Aid Specialist Qualified as rop Turret Gunner NOSI TURRET GUNNER Principal duty : Secondary duty: Nose Turret Gunner Turret Specialist Added duty Assistant to Armament Officer BILLY TURRET GUNNER Principal duty : Secondary duty: TAIL TURRET GUNNER Principal duty : Secondary duty: Belly Turret Gunner Turret Specialist Tail Turret Gunner Turret Specialist Added duty Assistant to Parachute Officer Purpose of Assigning Added Duties These assignments are not just so many titles. Each duty represents a specific job to be done. As airplane commander, you are responsible for everything but you can't do everything. These assignments, properly explained, will arouse the enthusiasm, energy and initiative of your crew. You have the right to demand that each crew member become an expert and main tain expert status in the particular duties as signed to him. There is nothing ironclad about the added duty assignments. These can be shifted around if there is a clear-cut advantage in doing so. For example, the suggested added 10 duty of the crew oxygen and equipment officer can be shifted from the navigator to the bom bardier or to one of the other crew members if he is better qualified or indicates a greater interest in the problem. The main thing is to spread the duties, encourage the individual to become an expert and then require him to edu cate and supervise the rest of the crew regard ing his particular specialty. Ask the crew mem ber to read all he can and learn all he can about his specific duties; to be prepared to conduct and aid in inspections and drills, and to give the crew periodic instruction in his RESTRICTED specialty. You, as airplane commander, are the sparkplug of this plan. You will assign duties, call drills, and give your specialists as much opportunity as possible to spread their knowl edge. To aid you, here are definitions of some of the less understood added duties. Definitions of Added Duties Airplane Engineering Officer-It is the duty of this officer ( almost always the copilot) to know more about the airplane than any member of the crew and to see that all other crew mem bers are instructed in all procedures pertaining to the airplane. The engineering officer should be able, by judicious questioning, to size up a new flight engineer in a few minutes' time. He should be able to perform any of the flight en gineer's duties. It is his job to se~ that all crew members are instructed in the proper methods of transferring fuel. He is charged with the duty of seeing that proper records of engine operations are kept from flight to flight so that faulty operation will be detected before it be comes serious. He should be intimately familiar with the cruise control, climb, and maximum range charts and should educate the engineer in their use. Gunfire Control Officer-It has been found that the copilot is in the best position to serve as gunfire control officer. He has the best view of developing attacks, although he cannot possibly see all enemy fighters. Although he does not attempt to actively direct the fire from ~11 guns, he does supervise the calling of attacks, main tains strict interphone discipline, and sees that the plan and procedure for controlling fire is strictly followed. He is responsible for seeing that the crew is properly indoctrinated in the use of the throat microphone and established practice-mission procedures which will simu late as nearly as possible the interphone con versations that would be necessary in combat. In the heat of battle, crew members tend to talk too fast, speak in too high a tone, or allow the microphone to be improperly placed. The gun fire control officer will develop the interphone proficiency to a point where absolute coopera tion between gun stations can be maintained on interphone. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED Navigation Specialist-Individuals with this as signment should understand all aids to naviga tion, understand how the navigator's log is kept, and be able in emergency to ascertain the location of the airplane and help to bring it back to base. Obviously, these men cannot be fully qualified navigators, but should know everything possible about navigation proce dures that may be of aid in case the navigator is incapacitated. Oxygen and Equipment Officer-This job re quires a detailed understanding of the equip ment and its operation. This officer confers with the personal equipment officer of the squadron regarding the use of all equipment, precau tions to be taken, proper fit and care, and sees that all crew members are properly instructed. He makes periodic inspections of the crew as directed by the pilot to see that oxygen equip ment is properly fitted and used. He, checks all crew members on the use of walk-around bot tles and ·sees that correct procedures are fol lowed on high-altitude missions. First-Aid Specialist-This assignment should be given, as far as possible, to individuals who already have a good know ledge of first aid. However, there should be one specialist in the nose, one in the rear compartment and one on the flight deck. If individuals in these com partments are not familiar with first aid, pilot should see that they receive adequate instruc tion. Combat reports reveal that lack of knowl edge of first aid has cost lives on combat mis sions. Fire Officer-This officer, usually the copilot, should know the location of all fire-fighting ap paratus and know specifically when and how to use it. He should instruct the entire crew on their exact duties in case of fires. He will 11 RESTRICTED arrange a program of fire drill with the pilot, aid in conducting the drill, and point out all mistakes. He will conduct a periodic inspection of the ship for fire hazards, see that the fire prevention rules are obeyed and be responsible to the pilot for proper precautions against fire. Qualified as Turret Gunner-Crew members whose stations are adjacent to turrets should be able to take over the turret and operate it if emergency requires. Turret specialists in struct such crew members in the operation of the turret and use spare time in flight and on the ground to qualify such crew members as emergency turret gunners. Then they can give assistance in case of trouble with tFte turret or if the turret specialist is incapacitated. Airplane Armament Officer-The armament officer must be familiar with all armament the airplane carries, the protection it provides and how it can best be used. In addition to his duties in connection with the loading, arming and dropping of bombs, he aids the pilot in en forcing the safety regulations regarding prac tice bombing, practice gunnery, and proper loading, unloading, and stowing of guns. In case of accidental discharge of a gun, he, with the gunner and pilot, will usually be considered at fault, on the ground that he has insufficiently instructed the gunner in procedures and pre cautions. Parachute Officer-This officer will see that each crew member has his own properly fitted parachute, that he knows how to use it, that he knows how and where to leave the plane and how to open the chute and descend. (See PIF.) He will plan a drill schedule with the pilot and aid in parachute drill. Through the pilot he will see that rules regarding the care, inspection, fitting and wearing of parachutes 12 are observed in accordance with AAF regula tions and requirements. Turret Specialist-The turret specialist must know not only how to operate his turret but how to repair it and put it back in operation if necessary. He will give instruction at every opportunity to crew members near his station to qualify them as assistant turret gunners. Assistant Assignments-An assistant is one who can take over a job and do it as well as the regularly assigned individual if necessary. The assistant radio operator, for example, should be able to take over and operate the radio as well ( or almost as well) as the regular radio operator, etc. The most valuable man on a team is the one who can take over other jobs than his own if and when required to do so. The above is by no means a complete state ment of this problem but it should give the airplane commander the idea of what it means to "train your crew," for every man to "know every other man's job," and what is meant by teamwork. These are not empty phrases. Every 15 minutes wasted on a mission means your crew is 15 minutes less well prepared for com bat. There is no reason for your radio equip ment to be idle. Your engineer has no time to sleep or sit and vegetate if he is carrying out his job of teaching all crew members to transfer fuel, working the cruise control charts, really keeping on the ball. You have to fly a practice mission ... so why not run it so that your crew will get all they can out of it? It is real pleasure to develop topnotch proficiency and teamwork, and your crew will actually enjoy missions more if they feel that their skills are being uti lized to the fullest extent, if only in practice. It is worth while to discuss here also the principal duties of each of the crew members to aid the commander in judging their ability. RESTRICTED COPILOT The copilot is the executive officer: your chief assistant, understudy, and strong right arm. He must be familiar enough with every one of your duties-both as pilot and airplane com mander-and be able to take over and act in your place at any time. He must be able to fly the airplane under all conditions as well as you would fly it yourself. He must be extremely proficient in engine operation, and know instinctively what to do to keep the airplane flying smoothly even though he is not handling the controls. He must have a thorough knowledge of cruis ing control data, and know how to apply it at the proper time. He is also the engineering officer aboard the airplane, and maintains a complete log of per formance data. He must be a qualified instrument pilot. He must be qualified to navigate during day or night by pilotage, dead reckoning, and by use of radio aids. He must be proficient in the operation of all radio equipment located in the pilot's compart ment. In formation flying, he must be able to make engine adjustments almost automatically. He must be prepared to take over on instru ments when the formation is climbing through an overcast, thus enabling you to watch the rest of the formation. Always remember that the copilot is a fully trained, rated pilot just like yourself. He is subordinate to you only by virtue of your po sition as the airplane commander. But the B-24 is a lot of airplane; more airplane than any one pilot can handle alone over a long period of time. Therefore, you have been provided with RESTRICTED RESTRICTED a second pilot who will share the duties of flight operation. Treat your copilot as a brother pilot. Remem ber that the more proficient he is as a pilot, the more efficiently he will be able to perform the duties of the vital post he holds as your second in command. Be sure that he is always allowed to do his share of the flying, in the copilot's seat, on take offs, landings, and on instruments. The importance of the copilot is eloquently testified by airplane commanders overseas. There have been numerous cases in which the pilot has been disabled or killed in flight and the copilot has taken full command of both airplane and crew, completed the mission, and. returned safely to the home base. Usually, the copilots who have distinguished themselves un der such conditions have been copilots who have been respected and trained by the air plane commander as pilots. Bear in mind that the pilot in the right-hand seat of your airplane is preparing himself for an airplane commander's post too. Allow him every chance to develop his ability and to profit by your experience. NAVIGATOR The navigator's job is to direct your flight from departure to destination and return. He must know the exact position of the airplane at all times. In order for you to understand fully how best to get most reliable service from your navigator, you must know as much about his job as possible. Navigation is the art of determining geo graphic positions by means of (a) pilotage, (b) dead reckoning, (c) radio, or (d) celestial navigation, or any combination of these 4 methods. By any one or combination of meth ods the navigator determines the position of the airplane in relation to the earth. 13 RESTRICTED Pilotage Pilotage is the method of determining the air plane's position by visual reference to the ground. The importance of accurate pilotage cannot be overstressed. In combat navigation, all bombing targets are approached by pilotage, and in many theaters the route is maintained by pilotage. This requires not merely the vicin ity type, but pin-point pilotage. The exact po sition of the airplane must be known not within 5 miles, but within¼ of a mile. The navigator does this by constant reference to groundspeeds, the ground, and to his maps and charts. ETA's are established for points ahead. During the mission, as long as he can maintain visual contact with the ground, the navigator can establish these pin-point posi tions so that the exact track of the airplane will be known when the mission is completed. Dead Reckoning Dead reckoning is the basis of all other types of navigation. For instance, if the navigator is doing pilotage, and computes ETA's for points ahead, he is using dead reckoning. Dead reckoning determines the position of the airplane at any given time by keeping an account of the track and distance flown over the earth's surface from the point of departure or the last known position. Dead reckoning can be subdivided into two classes: 1. Dead reckoning based on a series of known positions. For example, you, as pilot, start on a mission at 25,000 feet. For the first hour your navigator keeps track by pilotage, at the same time recording the heading and airspeed which you are holding. According to plan at the end of the first hour the airplane goes above the clouds, thus losing contact with the ground. By means of dead reckoning from his last pilotage point, the navigator is able to tell the position of , the aircraft at any time. The first hour's travel has given him the wind prevalent at the alti tude, and the track and groundspeed being made. By computing track and distance from the last pilotage point, he can always tell the position of the airplane. When your airplane 14 comes out of the clouds near the target, the navigator will have a very close approximation of his exact position, and will be able to pick up pilotage points very quickly. 2. Dead reckoning as a result of visual ref erences other than pilotage. When flying over water, desert, or barren land, where no reliable pilotage points are available, very accurate DR navigation still can be performed. By means of the drift meter the navigator is able to deter mine drift, the angle between the heading of the aircraft and the track of the aircraft over the ground. The true heading of the aircraft is obtained by application of compass error to the compass reading. The true heading plus or minus the drift (as read on the drift meter) gives the track of the airplane. At a constant airspeed, drift on 2 or more headings will give the navigator information necessary to obtain the wind by use of his computer. Groundspeed is computed easily once the wind, heading, and airspeed are known. So by constant recording of true heading, true airspeed, drift, and groundspeed, the navigator is able to deter mine accurately the position of the aircraft at any given time. For greatest accuracy. constant courses and airspeeds must be maintained by the pilot. If course or airspeed is changed, notify the navigator so he can record these changes. Radio Radio navigation makes use of various radio aids to determine position. The development of many new radio devices has increased the use of radio in combat zones. However, the ease with which radio aids can be jammed, or bent, limits the use of radio to that of a check on DR and pilotage. The navigator, in conjunction with the radioman, is responsible for all radio procedures, approaches, etc., that are in effect in the theater. Celestial Celestial navigation is the science of deter mining position by reference to 2 or more celes tial bodies. The navigator uses a sextant accu rate time and numerous tables to obtain what RESTRICTED he calls a line of position. Actually this line is part of a circle on which the altitude of the par ticular body is constant for that instant of time. An intersection of 2 or more of these lines gives the navigator a fix. These fixes can be relied on as being accurate within approximately 10 miles. The reason for inaccuracy is the instabil ity of the airplane as it moves through space, causing acceleration of the sextant bubble (a level denoting the horizontal). Because of this acceleration, the navigator takes observations over a period of time so that the acceleration error will cancel out to some extent. If the navigator tells the pilot when he wishes to take an observation, extremely careful flying on the part of the pilot during the few minutes it takes to make the observations will result in much greater accuracy. Generally speaking, the only celestial navigation used by a combat crew is during the qelivering flight to the theater. But in all cases celestial navigation is used as a check on dead reckoning and pilot age except where celestial is the only method available, such as on long over-water flights, etc. Instrument Calibration Instrument calibration is an important duty of the navigator. All navigation depends directly on the accuracy of his instruments. Correct calibration requires close cooperation and ex tremely careful flying by the pilot. Instruments to be calibrated include the altimeter, all com passes, airspeed indicators, alignment of the astrocompass, astrograph, and drift meter, and checks on the navigator's sextant and watch. Pilot-Navigator Preflight Planning 1. Pilot and navigator must study flight plan of the route to be flown, and select alternate airports. 2. Study the weather with the navigator. Know what weather you are likely to encoun ter. Decide what action is to be taken. Know the weather conditions at the alternate airports. 3. Inform your navigator of what airspeed and altitude you wish to fly so that he can prepare his flight plan. 4. Learn what type of navigation the navi gator intends to use: pilotage, dead reckoning, RESTRICTED RESTRICTED radio, celestial, or a combination of all methods. 5. Determine check points; plan to make radio fixes. 6. Work out an effective communication method with your navigator to be used in flight. 7. Synchronize your watch with. your navi gator's. Pilot-Navigator in Flight 1. Constant course-For accurate navigation you, the pilot, must fly a constant course. The navigator has many computations and notations to make in his log. Constantly changing course makes his job more difficult. A good navigator is supposed to be able to follow the pilot, but he cannot be taking compass readings all the time. 2. Constant airspeed must be held as nearly as possible. This is as important to the naviga tor as is a constant course in determining position. 3. Precision flying by the pilot greatly affects the accuracy of the navigator's instrument readings, particularly celestial readings. A slight error in celestial reading can cause con siderable error in determining positions. You can help the navigator by providing as steady a platform as possible from which he can take readings. The navigator should notify you when he intends to take readings so that the airplane can be leveled off and flown as smoothly as pos sible preferably by using the automatic pilot. Do not allow your navigator to be disturbed while he is taking celestial readings. 4. Notify the navigator in advance of any change in flight such as change in altitude, course, or airspeed. If change in flight plan is to be made, consult the navigator. Talk over the proposed change so that he can plan the flight and advise you concerning it. 5. In the event there is doubt as to the position of the airplane, pilot and navigator should work together, refer to the navigator's flight log, talk the problem over and decide together the best course of action to take. 6. Check your compasses at intervals with those of the navigator, noting any deviation. 7. Require your navigator to give position reports at regular intervals. 15 RESTRICT.ED 8. You are ultimately responsible for getting the airplane to its destination. Therefore, it is your duty to know your position at all times. 9. Encourage your navigator to use as many of the methods of navigation as possible as a means of double-checking and for practice. Post-flight Critique After every flight get together with the navi gator and discuss the flight and compare notes. Go over the navigator's log. If there have been serious navigational errors, discuss them with the navigator and determine their cause. If the navigator has been at fault, caution him that it is his job to see that the same mistake does not occur again. If the error has been caused by faulty instruments, see that they are cor rected before another navigation mission is attempted. If your flying has contributed to the inaccuracy of the navigation, try to fly a better course the next mission. Miscellaneous Duties The navigator's primary duty is navigating your airplane with a high degree of accuracy. But as a member of the team, he must also have a general knowledge of the entire oper ation of the airplane. He has a .50-cal. machine gun at his station, and he must be able · to use it skillfully and to service it in emergencies. He must be familiar with the-oxygen system, know how to operate the turrets, radio equip ment, and fuel transfer system. He must know the location of all fuses and spare fuses, lights and spare lights, affecting navigation. He must be familiar with emergency pro cedures, such as the man~al operation of land ing gear, bomb bay doors, and flaps, and the proper procedures for crash landings, ditching, bailout, etc. THE BOMBARDIER Accurate and effective bombing is the ultimate purpose of your entire airplane and crew. Every other function is preparatory to hitting and, destroying the target. That's your bombardier's job. The success or failure of the mission depends upon what 16 he accomplishes in the short interval of the bombing run. When the bombardier takes over the airplane for the run on the target, he is in command. He will tell you what he wants done, and until he gives you the word "Bombs away," his word is virtually law. A great deal, therefore depends on the un derstanding between bombardier and pilot. You expect your bombardier to know his job when he takes over. He expects you to understand the problems involved in his job, and to give him full cooperation. Teamwork between pilot and bombardier is essential. Under any given set of conditions, ground speed, altitude, direction, etc., there is only one point in space where a bomb may be re leased from the airplane to hit a predetermined object on the ground. There are many things with which a bombar dier must be thoroughly familiar in order to release his bombs at the right point to hit this predetermined target. He must know and understand his bomb sight, what it does, and how it does it. He must thoroughly understand the oper ation and upkeep of his bombing instruments and equipment. He must know that his racks, switches, con trols, releases, doors, linkage, etc., are in first class operating condition. He must understand the automatic pilot as it pertains to bombing. He must know how to set it up, make air adjustments and minor repairs while in flight. He must know how to operate all gun posi tions in the airplane. He must know how to load and how to clear simple stoppages and jams of guns in flight. He must be able to load and fuse his own bombs. RESTRICTED He must understand the destruction power of bombs and must know the vulnerable spots on various types of targets. He must understand the bombing problem, bombing probabilities, bombing errors, etc. He must be thoroughly versed in target iden tification and in aircraft identification. The bombardier should be familiar with the duties of all members of the crew and should be able to assist the navigator in case the navi gator becomes incapacitated. For the bombardier to be able to do his job, the pilot of the aircraft must place the aircraft in the proper position to arrive at a point on a circle about the target from which the bombs can be released to hit the target. Unless the pilot performs his part of the bombing run correctly, even the best bombard ier in the world will be unable to bomb ac curately. The pilot's failure to hold airspeed and altitude will cause the following bombing errors: 1. Flying too high: bomb will hit over. 2. Flying too low: bomb will fall short. 3. Flying too fast: bomb will fall sh9rt. 4. Flying too slow: bomb will hit over. THE RADIO OPERATOR There is a lot of radio equipment in today's B-24's. There is one special man who is sup posed to know all there is to know about this equipment. Sometimes he does but often he doesn't. His deficiencies often do not become apparent until the crew is in the combat zone, when it is too late. Too often the lives of pilots and crew are lost because the radio operator has accepted his responsibility indifferently. Radio is a subject that cannot be learned in a day. It cannot be mastered in 6 weeks, but sufficient knowledge can be imparted to the radio man during his period of training in the United States providing he is willing to study. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED It is imperative that you check your radio oper ator's ability to handle his job before taking him overseas as part of your crew. To do this you may have to check the various instructor departments to find out any weakness in the radio ~perator's training and proficiency and to aid the insti:uctors in overcoming such weak nesses. Training in the various phases of the heavy bomber program is designed to fit each member of the crew for the handling of his jobs. The radio operator will be required to: 1. Render position reports every 30 minutes. 2. Assist the navigator in taking fixes. 3. Keep the liaison and command sets prop erly tuned and in good operating order. 4. Understand from an operational point of view: (a) Instrument landing (b) IFF (c) VHF and other navigational aids equipment in your airplane. 5. Maintain a log. In addition to being radio operator, the radio man is also a gunner. During periods of combat he will be required to leave his watch at the radio and take up his guns. He is often required to learn photography. Some of the best pictures taken in the Southwest Pacific were taken by radio operators. The radio operator who cannot perform his job properly may be the weakest member of your crew. And the crew is no stronger than its weakest member. THE ENGINEER Size up the man who is to be your engineer. This man is supposed to know more about the mechanical features of the airplane you are to fly than any other member of the crew. 17 RESTRICTED He has been trained in the Air Forces' high ly specialized technical schools. Probably he has served some time as a crew chief. Never theless there may be some blank spots in his training which you; as a pilot and airplane com mander, must fill in. Think back on your own training. In many courses of instruction, you had a lot of things thrown at you from right and left. You had to concentrate on how to fly; and where your equipment was concerned you learned to rely more and more on the enlisted personnel, par ticularly the crew chief and the engineer, to advise you about things that were not taught to you because of lack of time and the arrange ment of the training program. Both pilot and engineer have a responsibility to work losely together to supplement and fill in the blank spots in each other's education. To be a qualified combat engineer a man must know his airplane, his engines, and his arma ment equipment thoroughly and know how to strip, clean and re-assemble the guns. This is a big responsibility: the lives of the entire crew, the safety of the equipment, the success of the mission depend squarely upon it. He must work closely with the copilot, check ing engine operation, fuel consumption, and the operation of all equipment. He must be able to work with the bombard ier, and know how to cock, lock, and load the bomb racks. It is up to you, the airplane commander, to see that he is familiar with these duties, and, if he is hazy concerning them, to have the bombardier give him special help and in struction. He should have a general knowledge of radio equipment and be able to assist in tuning trans mitters and receivers. Your engineer should be your chief source of information concerning the airplane. He should know more about the equipment than anyone, yourself included. You, in turn, are his source of information concerning flying. Bear this in mind in all your discussions with the engineer. The more com plete you can make his knowledge of the rea sons behind every function of ·the equipment, 18 the more valuable he will be as a member of the crew. Who knows? Some day that little bit of extra knowledge in the engineer's mind may save the day in an emergency. Generally, in emergencies, the engineer will be the man to whom you turn first. Build up his pride, his confidence, his knowledge. Know him personally; check on the extent of his knowl edge. Make him a man upon whom you can rely. THE GUNNERS The B-24 is a most effective gun platform, but its effectiveness can be either amplified or de feated by the way the gunners in your crew perform their duties in action. Your gunners belong to one of two distinct categories: turret gunners and flexible gunners. The power turret gunners require many mental and physical qualities similar to what we know as inherent flying ability, since the operation of the power turret and gunsight are much like airplane operation. While the flexible gunner does not require ,the same delicate touch as the turret gunner, he must have a fine sense of timing and be fa miliar with the rudiments of exterior ballistics. All gunners should be familiar with the cov erage area of all gun positions, and be prepared to bring the proper gun to bear as the con dition may warrant. They should be experts in aircraft identifica tion. Where the Sperry turret is used, failure to set the target dimension dial properly on the K-type sight will result in miscalculation of range. They must be familiar thoroughly with the Browning aircraft machine gun. They should know how to maintain the guns, how to clear RESTRICTED jams and stoppages, and how to harmonize the sights with the guns. While participating in training flights, the gunners should be . operating their turrets con stantly, tracking with the flexible guns even when actual firing is not practical. Other air planes flying in the vicinity offer excellent tracking targets. Automobiles, houses, and oth er ground objects afford excellent tracking tar gets during low-altitude flights. The importance of teamwork cannot be over- . RESTRICTED RESTRICTED emphasized. One poorly trained gunner, or one man not on the alert, can be the weak link that destroys the entire crew. Keep the interest of your gunners alive at all times. Any form of competition among the gunners themselves will stimulate interest to a high degree. Finally, each gunner should fire the guns at each station to familiarize himself with the other man's position and to insure knowledge of operation in the event of an emergency. 19 RESTRICTED GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS NOTE: DIMENSIONS A. AIRPLANE-GENERAL Fuselage Height •...............•...•.•.....••.•....•...•...•.. , , •• , •. , . , , . 1 0' 5" Over-all Span .............................•..........•.•.................. 11 0' 0" Over-all Length ....•......................•................. ......•........ 67' 2" Over-all Height •.........................•.•...•.......................... 17' 11" Clearance, Inboard Propeller Tip to Ground ..•................•...•........... 2' 10½" Clearance, Outboard Propeller Tip to Ground .•.••••......•.......•.. : •.••.... 3' 3½" Clearance, Propeller Tip to Fuselage ..••...................................•. 1' 9" Clearance, Inboard to Outboard Propeller Tips ..•••.••........................ 2' 6" Clearance, Propeller to Wing leading Edge ..••.....................•......... 6' 2 1/ 16" Clearance, Bottom of Fuselage to Ground •••...•............................. 1' 8" B. WINGS Root Chord ................................•.............................. 14' O" Dihedral .......•..•....................•.......•......................... 3° 26' Incidence ................................•.......••.......... , ............ 3° 0' Sweep-Leading Edge ............................•.............•...•...... 3° 30' Total Wing Area (Including Ailerons) •..•......••....•....................... 1048 sq. ft. C, FLAP.S Area (Total) .....•.....•........................•.....•..............•.... 144.1 sq. ft. Chord (Maximum) .•....................•.............•...............•.•.. 2' 7 7 / 16" Movement of Flaps (Maximum Down) ....•...........................•.•.... 40° D. AILERONS Total Area (each) .•...................•.....••••.•.•...........••••..••.•• 41.55 sq. ft. Movement of Aileron, Up ...................•.....•...................•..•. 20° Down .....•.....••.....••..•........•.........•.•.•.. 20° Area of Aileron Tab (Right Aileron) ....••......•......................•...•. 2.52 sq. ft. Movement of Tab, Up •..........................•...........•.............. 10° Down ..•.•..............................•............... 10° E. TAIL GROUP ( 1) Horizontal Stabilizer Over-all Span .........•.........•...................................... 26' o". Total Area ...•.............•... '. ..•................•.................. 140.54 sq. ft. (2) Elevators Total Area .... ' ..•.....................................•............... 60.06 sq. ft. Movement of Elevator, Up ................•............ · .......•.......... 30° Down .••............•...•..•.......•............. 20° Area of Elevator :r ab (Both) ..••.••...................•................•. 2.40 sq. ft. Movement of Tab, Up ....................•...•...•..................•... 10° Down .................•.......•....•..•.............. 10° (3) Vertical fins · Area (Both) ................•.•.•.•....•........•.....................•.. 139.0 sq. ft. (4) Rudders Total Area (Both) ........•.............................................. 65.0 sq. ft. Movement (To Each Side) ..•••.................•........................ 20° Area of Rudder Tabs (Both) •....•..........•.••.........•...•........... 1.92 sq. ft. Movement of Tab (Each Side) .....................•..••..••..........•... 10° F. LANDING GEAR Tread ...••...........................••..•...•...•...••..••..•.•...... 25' 7½" Wheel Base (Fore and Aft) •......•.......•.........................•..... 16' O" It is impractical to include in a manual of this kind all data for all series. The obied is to give the pilot a general picture of the B-24 airplane. It is your obligation to note and investigate the individual differences in the particular airplane you are flying. Refer to the technical orders avail able in the airplane and at your base. Remember that you can never know too much about your airplane. 20 RESTRICTED RESTRICTED -------67'2"--------i RESTRICTED 21 GENERAL DESCRIPTION The B-24 is a midwing, land, heavy bombardment airplane of the following approximate over-all dimensions: length 67 feet, 2 inches; height 17 feet, 11 inches; span 110 feet. Weight varies from a basic weight of approximately 38,000 lb. to combat loads of over 60,000 lb. Compartments 3 I 4 0- 1. Bombardier-navigator's compartment, in the nose of the airplane, contains navigational equipment, bombsight, bomb controls, and nose guns, or in the case of later models) nose turret. 2. Flight deck includes pilots' compartment, radio operator's station and top gun turret. 3. Two bomb bays are in the center of the fuselage under the center wing section. Half deck is located above the rear bomb bay. 4. Rear fuselage compartment contains lower gun turret, waist guns, bottom camera hatch, and photographic equipment. Tail gun turret is in the extreme rear of the fuselage. 22 Landing Gear The tricycle gear consists of 2 main wheels and a nosewheel, mounted on air-oil shock struts. The nosewheel is free to swivel 45° each way but should never be turned more than 30°; it is damped against shimmying. All 3 units are norm,ally extended and re tracted hydraulically by a lever on the pilot's control pedestal which also operates the landing gear locking mechanism. The retractable shock-mounted tail bumper ( or tailskid) is operated simultaneously with the landing gear (B-24 C's and early B-24 D's have non-retractable tail bumpers). The inherent directional stability of the tri cycle gear is an important aid to the pilot dur ing taxiing, takeoff, landing operation in cross winds, and with blown tires. RESTRICTED Equipment and Systems The various types of equipment and systems such as the fuel, oil, hydraulic, and other sys tems are described in detail in separate sections of this manual. Specific and complete practical understanding of these systems is imperative for the pilot because of the emergencies which arise in combat operations. Armament Protective armor plate and guns are provided at crew stations as shown in the accompanying illustrations. · Davis Wing The B-24 wing is an internally braced, skin stressed type, tapered, with a high aspect ratio. It is considered one of the most efficient air foils ever developed and was a radical depar ture from airfoils in use when the Liberator was designed. Its unusual efficiency accounts 90° ELEVA TJON RESTRICTED for the combination of high speed, long range and great load-carrying qualities of the air plane. Flaps greatly vary the lift-drag charac teristics of the wing, as is evidenced by the fact that normal takeoffs are made with 20 ° of flaps, that maximum lift and stability at slow cruising speeds can be obtained with 5° to 9° of flaps, and that 10°, 20°, and 40° of flaps effect success sively larger reductions in stalling speeds. Propellers The 3-bladed propellers are Hamilton-Stand ard, hydromatic, full-feathering, controllable pitch, constant-speed. Toggle switches on the pilot's pedestal electrically control the gover nors which maintain the constant-speed fea ture. To operate the B-24 safely it is imperative that pilots fully understand the principle of the constant-speed propeller, its relationship to en gine pressures ( manifold pressure and brake mean effective pressure) and know when and when not to use the feathering feature. ~ INDICATES APPROXIMATE AREA OF PROTECTION Armament and Angles of Armor Protection Diagram B-24D RESTRICTED 23 RESTRICTED Ignition Engine ignition is provided by 2 American Bosch magnetos, mounted on the rear section of each engine. Separate switches permit either one or both magnetos to be operated on the engine. Battery switches are on the copilot's auxiliary switch panel. A master switch bar located just above the magneto switches is available for simultaneously shorting the pri maries of all magnetos and for opening the bat tery circuit of the main electrical system. Cowl Flaps Engine cooling is regulated by means of adjust- . able cowl flaps which are controlled electrically from the pilot's pedestal. The range of cow 1 flap control is from closed to 12¼ 0 to 30° open, de pending on the model airplane. Carburetors On No. 42-41115 and subsequent aircraft the Bendix Stromberg carburetor is replaced by the Chandler Evans Co. (Ceco) carburetor. Engines The B-24 is equipped with 4 Pratt & Whitney 14-cylinder, twin-row radial, air-cooled engines with internal single-stage, single-speed, engine driven integral superchargers. Engines are rated to produce up to a total of 4800 horse power using Grade 100 fuel and takeoff power settings. Each of the 4 engines is equipped with a turbo-supercharger to furnish compressed air to the fuel induction system at sea-level pres sure. Control Surfaces Rudders, elevators and ailerons are equipped with trim tabs (except left aileron) and are fabric covered; ali other surfaces are metal cov ered. Wing Flaps The all-metal, Fowler-type wing flaps retract into the wing center section trailing edge wells. Maximum down travel is 40°. THE ENGINES HAVE THE FOLLOWING ACCESSORIES 24 I Electric Generator 2 Magnetos Fuel Pump Turbo - supercharger Vacuum Pump Electric Generator 2 Magnetos Fuel Pump Turbo• supercharger Vacuum Pump 0 Electric Generator 2 Magnetos Fuel Pump Turbo -supercharger Hydraulic Pump Electric Generator 2 Magnetos Fuel Pump Turbo• supercharger RESTRICTED RESTRICTED ABOVE INSTRUMENT PANEL 80. Propeller Feathering Switches 81. Clock 82. Remote Indicating Compass 83. Magnetic Compass 26 72. Aileron Tab Control Wheel 73. RecQgnition Light Switches 7 4. Landing Gear Control Lever 75. Command Radio Transmitter Control Box 76. Wing Flap Control Lever 77. Parking Brake Handle 78. Emergency Bomb Release Handle 79. Controls Lock Handle BASE OF CONTROL PEDESTAL B-24 Pl LOT'S INSTRUMENTS AND CONTROLS 1. Fluorescent Light Switches 19. Airspeed Indicator 37. Throttles 55. Cowl Flap Switches 2. 24 Volt DC Fluorescent Light 20. Turn and Bank Indicator 38. Propeller Feathering Circuit Breakers 56. SCR 535 Power Switch 3. Magnetic Compass Light Rheostat 21. Altimeter 39. Mixture Controls 57. Throttle Friction Lock 4. IFF Radio Destroyer Switch 22. C-1 Automatic Pilot 40. Bomb Bay Fuel Transfer Switch 58. SCR 535 Emergency Switch 5. Bomb Doors Indicator 23. Marker Beacon Indicator 41. Booster Pump Switches 59. De-icer Control 6. Bomb Release Indicator 24. Landing Gear Indicator Test Button 42. Engine Starter Switches 60. De-icer Pressure Gage 7. Defroster Ducts 25. Flap Position Indicator 43. Oil Dilution Switches 61. Emergency Ignition Switch Bar 8. Pilot Director Indicator 26. Landing Gear Indicator 44. Primer Switches 62. Ignition Switches 9. Directional Gyro 27. Free Air Temperature Gage 45. Anti-icer Control 63. Brake Pedals 10. Gyro Horizon 28. Oil Pressure Gages 46. Formation Lights Rheostat · 11. Radio Compass Indicator 29. Oil Temperature Gages 47. Carburetor Air Temperature Gages 64. Elevator Tab Control Wheel 12. Manifold Pressure Gages 30. Hydraulic Pressure Gages 48. Main Storage Battery Switches 65. Alarm Button 13. Tachometers 31. Suction Gage 49. Heater and Defroster Switches 66. Passing Ligtit Switch 14. Fuel Pressure Gages 32. Inboard Brake Pressure Gage so. Oxygen Panels 67. Navigation Light Switches 15. Cylinder Temperature Gages 33. Outboard Brake Pressure Gage 51. Pilot's Wheel 68. A C Inverter Switch 16. Chemical Release Switches 34. Defroster Controls 52. Propeller Switches 69. Rudder Tab Control Knob 17. Ventilators 3~. Propeller Governor Limit lights 53. lntercooler Shutter Switches 70. Landing Light Switches 18. Rate-of-climb Indicator 36. Turbo Boost Selector 54. Pitot Heater Switch 71. SCR 522 Control Box _ RESTRICTED 25 3/1' ARMOR PLATE ¾' ALUMINUM ALLOY DEFLECTOR PLATE CONSOLIDATED NOSE TURRET 32F5800-3 TWO .50 CAL. MG'S 800 RDS. AMN. IN TURRET ½' ARMOR PLATE 2½'· ARMOR GLASS 3/■" ARMOR PLATE 1/is' ARMOR PLATE ON SEAT ¼" ARMOR PLATE ¾' ARMOR PLATE MARTIN TOP TURRET 250 CE-5 TWO .50 CAL. MG'S 760 RDS. AMN. IN TURRET TWO .50 CAL. MG'S 250 RDS. AMN. EACH BRIGGS RETRACTABLE LOWER BALL TURRET A-13 TWO .50 CAL. MG'S 1016 RDS. AMN. IN TURRET CONSOLIDATED !AIL TURRET 32F5800-3 TWO .50 CAL. MG'S 800 RDS. AMN. IN TURRET Defensive Armament and Angles of Armor Protection-B24J . ,--7 (r' -T-"'-- . -~ ' ' ' ··-r, . /. ,'-----1- , 360° TWO .50 CAL. MG'S 250 RDS. AMN. EACH BRIGGS RETRACTABLE LOWER .BALL TURRET A-13 /F'' TWO .50 CAL. MG'S / , \ II° ~er~, 1016,R:'. AMN.: TURIR ... _ _J r 0\) iM. 'I . iC~~~ Cl • \ l .I - -...........J;," -- -----'\4F!J/p·· I ,k--~- i I r' ::u ,r·•:i C~--~ ______ V _ _L __ -_----i,-----i :.:_:-_:,: -- 45" CONSOLIDATED TAIL TURRET CONSOLIDATED NOSE TURRET MARTIN TOP TUR;;T ~ 0 -- 900 ~~ 8 ~ 3 CAL. MG'S 32F5800-3 250 CE-5 800 RDS. AMN. IN TURRET TWO .50 CAL. MG'S TWO .50 CAL. MG'S 800 RDS. AMN. IN TURRET 760 RDS. AMN. IN TURRET Angles of Fire-B24J RESTRICTED RESTRICTED PRESENTING THE B-24N The new B-24N will soon be in operation in many bases in the continental United States. It incorporates a number of changes and new features developed as a result of the airplane's extensive combat experience. The major difference in the exterior appear ance of the B-24N is the single vertical stab ilizer. Also, the new nose turret installation is ball type. This change has cleaned up the nose and greatly increased the pilot's forward visibility. The most important change in the inside, as far as the pilot is concerned, is the relocation of many of the switches. Also, some of the in struments and other equipment have been moved. The general flight characteristics of the B-24N are basically the same as those of other series, and stalling speeds are the same. The principal difference is that in earlier B-24 airplanes the rudder does not give enough directional control at low airspeeds (around 130 mph) with an outboard engine not work ing. In the B-24N, however, rudder control is good enough to maintain straight flight with RESTRICTED no yaw under these conditions. You can cruise with two engines out on one side at airspeeds of 150 to 155 mph and trim the airplane to fly "hands off." This condition has been tested, with No. 1 and No. 2 feathered and No. 3 ·and No. 4 pulling nearly rated power. The control pressures have been improved making it much easier to hold the airplane under unbalanced power conditions. The rud deF pressures are now considerably lighter, and aileron and elevator pressures have been light ened to a point where they are very satis factory. The B-24N is powered with four Pratt-Whit ney, Model R-1830-75 engines, which allow more horsepower for takeoff. The takeoff, or turbo bypass, valve has been added to the engines on the B-24N. The opera ' tion of this valve will require some study by the pilot before he becomes proficient in its use. Generally speaking, the B-24N is much more of a pilot's airplane and the average pilot will find much l~ss difficulty when flying under unbalanced power conditions. 27 RESTRICTED 28 B-24N \ INSTRUMENT PANEL AND CONJROL PEDESTAL SECTION OF MAJOR . CHANGES SHOWN IN RED FOR FURTHER DETAIL CONSULT T. 0. AN 01 • 5 EF· 1 RESTRICTED RESTRICTED RESTRICTED 29 RESTRICTED As commander of a $250,000 airplane, you can take nothing for granted. Satisfy yourself be fore every flight that your airplane is ready. One careless oversight can mean the failure of your mission. Think and act like an airplane commander from the moment you approach your airplane. This will inspire every member of your crew to work that much harder to dem onstrate proficiency at his station. EXTERNAL VISUAL INSPECTION Your first act upon approaching the airplane is to inspect the crew, making sure that every man is properly equipped and ready for the mission. After depositing your equipment in the airplane, execute the external inspection. Be businesslike and thorough. Keep in mind 30 that flying gravel, a passing vehicle or that last hard landing may have weakened your air plane. You are double-checking to see that the engineer has done his job properly. DANGER Never allow anyone, under any circumstances, to walk through the propellers or between the fuselage and propellers even though the engines are not running. This is an ironclad rule that every airplane commander is bound to observe and enforce. If you are lax and set a bad exam ple when there is no danger, it may someday cost you an absent-minded crewman. Sequence The fastest, most efficient way to inspect your airplane is to follow a definite, prescribed se quence every time. Always start at the right side of the fuselage, proceed out along the right wing and around its tip (to avoid walking through the propellers) and continue .on around the airplane to the starting point. This check requires only 5 minutes. RESTRICTED ;ID m "' .... ;ID n .... m 0 w - SEQUENCE FOR EXTERNAL CHECK ii~:iit~i Make certain that all ice and frost is removed from wings before takeoff. The Davis airfoil is subiect to great loss of lift with even a seemingly negligible amount of ice. You risk mushing in on takeoff with load unless wings are completely free of clear ice or frost-so make sure they are clean! I ;ID • ' m I "' )( .... , ... ;ID , n .... m 0 RESTRICTED 1. Fuel Cell Area: Inspect fuel cell area of wing, between gear and fuselage, for security of inspection plates and for leaks. 2. Right Main Gear: Check for proper infla tion, cuts or bruises, tire slippage, and rim flange cracks. Oil leakage from the brake flange area usually indicates a ruptured brake ex pander tube. Inspect hydraulic lines and fittings for security and leaks, and check oleo strut for 3½-inch extension. Check down-latch in posi tion and undamaged. Check point of suspension of landing gear for cracks and buckling. A faulty gear may let you down hard. 32 3. No. 3 Supercharger: Check for free move ment of bucket wheel, alignment and warping of buckets, and for missing or cracked buckets. Check the exhaust section for cracks or loose joints. Check the waste gate for full open posi tion and free movement. 4. No. 3 Nacelle: Check for loose cowl fasten ers or damage .. 5. No. 4 Supercharger: Same check as for No. 3. 6. No. 4 Nacelle: Same check as for No. 3. 7. Right Aileron: Inspect aileron for condi tion of fabric. (Check trim tab for damage.) 8. Right Outer Wing Panel and Running Lights: Check condition of wing panels, and check lights for breakage or dirt. ,. 9. Right Outboard De-icer Boot: Inspect for cracks or damage. RESTRICTED 10. No. 4 Engine: Inspect nose section for oil leaks or foreign matter wedged between cylin ders. Check propeller for cracks, and anti-icer slinger ring for security. Inspeqt propeller gov ernor connections. 11. De-icer Boot Between Engines: Check for cracks or damage. 12. No. 3 Engine: Same check as for No. 4. 13. Right Inboard De-icer Boot: Check for cracks or damage. 14. Right Pitot Tube: Check pitot head cover; if it is not removed your bombardier's airspeed indicator won't work. (New G-2 pitot-static system has only one pitot tube, on lower left side of the nose.) RESTRICTED RESTRICTED 15. Nose Turret: Make sure that nose turret is locked in forward position and free from damage. 16. Left Pitot Tube: Same check as for right tube, to insure operation of pilot's airspeed indi cator. .. 17. Fire Extinguisher: Open small access door in fuselage on left side of nose and check fire extinguisher for proper stowage. Reclose door securely. 33 I " RESTRICTED 18. Nosewheel Assembly: Check tire for proper inflation, cuts, bruises, blisters, exces sive wear, and slippage. Have tire inspected at once if it has slipped. Check oleo strut for 4¾ inch extension. Pressure gage on shimmy damper accumulator should read 250 lb. sq. in. If it is a Houdaille type shimmy damper ( which has no accumulator), check the needle plunger at top of damper assembly for 3/s to %-inch extension. Check nose gear down-latch in the down position. Check nose assembly hydraulic lines and fittings for leaks. 19. Left Inboard De-icer Boot: Check for cracks or damage. 20. No. 2 Engine: Same check as for No. 3. 21. De-icer Boot Between Engines: Check for cracks or damage. 22. No. 1 Engine: Same check as for No. 2. 23. Left Outboard De-icer Boot: Check for cracks or damage. 24. Left Outer Wing Panels and Running Lights: Same check as for right wing-panels for condition, lights for brea~age or dirt. 25. Left Aileron: Inspect for fabric condition. 26. No. 1 Nacelle: Same check as for No. 4. 27. No. I , Supercharger: Same check as for No.4. 28. No. 2 Nacelle: Same check as for No. 1. 29. No. 2 Supercharger: Same check as for No. 1. 30. Left Main Gear: Same check as for right main gear. 31. Fuel Cell Area: Same check as for right side. 34 32. Left Wing Flap: Check flap for proper alignment with trailing edge of wing, in full up position and free from skin damage, holes, or dents. 33. Antenna: Check for security. 34. Ball Turret: Make sure turret is locked in up position. 35. Tailskid: Check for full extension and freedom from damage; check hydraulic fittings. 36. Left Waist Door Wind Deflector: Check securely closed. RESTRICTED 37. Left Tail Section: Check de-icer surfaces. Check stabilizer surfaces for loose rivets and buckling of plates. Check left fin, rudder, ele vator, and trim tab for alignment and condition of fabric. 38. Tail Turret: Check for alignment and security. 39. Right Tail Section: Same check as for left side. 40. Right Waist Door Wind Deflector: Check . -securely closed. 41. Fire Extinguisher: .Check stowage of fire extinguisher in fuselage position just aft of rear bomb bay. 42. Right Wing Flap: Same check as for left wing flap. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED Reject the airplane if you discover unsafe defects, and list all defects on Form 1 A. Also report all defects to your crew chief. You should have made a complete circuit of the airplane without once walking through the propellers. You are now ready to enter the bomb bay for the internal inspection. Before· you do, however, check one final item: Pulling Through Engines: Check that each engine has been pulled through 6 blades to assure free turning of the engine and to detect any oil or fuel in the combustion chambers which would damage the engine. Before the engineer approaches engines, check the ignition switches and the master ignition switch "OFF." See that the engineer stays clear of the propeller plane of rotation. A broken wire or a hot plug might cause a kickback and serious injury. 35 RESTRICTED INTERNAL VISUAL INSPECTION The internal visual inspection is just as impor tant as the external inspection. Keep your crew conscious of the fact that you are vitally inter ested in the condition of every part of the air plane. Don't tolerate rubbish or improperly stowed cargo or equipment. But be quick to praise the well-kept airplane. Execute the in terior inspection in the following sequence: 1. Rear Section of Fuselage: Upon entering the bomb bay doors proceed to the rear and in spect location and anchoring of cargo, gear, guns, and ammunition. 2. Hydraulic Reservoir: Check for leakage. Should be filled to within ½ inch of red line on reservoir gage, provided the accumulators are !)roperly charged. Check hydraulic reservoir emergency suction valve in horizontal position. 3. Emergency Hydraulic Star Valve: Check in the closed position and safety wired . • . . 4. Fuel Selector Valves: On your way to the flight deck check each of the 4 fuel selector valves set in tank-to-engine positions, i.e., No. 4 tank to No. 4 engine, No. 3 tank to No. 3 engine, etc., to make sure that each engine is receiving fuel from its main fuel cells only. Two of these valves are mounted inside the fuselage on each side of the bomb bay overhead between the wing spar and Station 4.2. (On late-model planes, fuel selector valves are on the flight deck.) The 2 valves on the right control the flow to engines No. 3 and No. 4, and those on the left control the flow to engines No. 1 and No. 2, as numbered. Caution: Should the 4 main tank selector valves be Set at "l, 2, 3, and 4 TANK to No. 1, 36 2, 3, and 4 ENGINE and CROSSFEED," a failure of any fuel line or the crossfeed mani fold would result in a loss of both fuel and fuel pressure. On takeoff this would be disastrous. 5. Fuel Sight Gages: As you enter the flight deck, check the quantity of fuel aboard using the gages on your left. Each gage is connected by a 2-way valve to 2 of the 4 main fuel systems as labeled. For gages to give an accurate read ing, the inclinometer located outboard of the gages must be centered. 0 Q O I FULL GAUGES ~ READ CORRECTL'I' WHEN INCLINOMETE~ BUBBLE CENTERED OM LINE ~ FUEL SIGHT GAGE AND INCLINOMETER 6. Flight Deck: Check placing of gear, mov able equipment secured in proper places, win dows clean, etc. 7. Personnel: Satisfy yourself that all per sons are aboard, are properly clothed for the mission, are equipped with a parachute and oxygen mask, and understand their use. Be sure sealed first-aid kits are in their proper locations. Make sure there is ample oxygen aboard at all stations for the mission planned. Check to see that all personnel know the emer gency warning signals for bailout and ditching RESTRICTED and the procedures to be followed, and that they know their stations for takeoffs, flight and landings. See that a loading or passenger list has been sent to Operations if required. 8. Maps and Navigational Aids: Make sure that necessary up-to-date maps, copies of in strument procedures, radio facility charts, radio aids to navigation and direction-finding charts are aboard. 9. Form lA: Before you accept the airplane, study Form lA and note all defects, comments of pilots and notations by crew chief of work done on the airplane since the last flight. 10. Loading: Ascertain that the airplane is properly loaded within the allowable center of gravity (CG) limits by checking Form F m "Weight and Balance Data" in the airplane. 11. Seating: After these things have been accomplished, the pilot and copilot are ready to get into their seats, fasten safety belts, and adjust the seats and foot pedals to permit . full RESTRICTED RESTRICTED rudder and brake control. The levers on the seat permit adjustment fore and aft, up and down, and tilt. To adjust rudder pedals, push the pedal adj4stment lever away from the pedal with the toe and move the pedal fore or aft. Be sure the catch relocks properly. 12. Unlocking Controls: Copilot unlocks con trols, securely stows the strap overhead so it won't bang the pilot in the face, and checks the locking lever in the full down position to make sure the lock is released. Then you are ready to start the checklist procedure. Wait: Is everyone aboard? Is all equipment aboard? Is the fuel supply ample? It is always embarrassing to have to return to the line, to bail out without a parachute, or to arrive over the target without your bomb load. 37 RESTRICTED No pilot (in his right mind) neglects the check list in a 4-engine airplane. Your mission, your airplane and your crew are too important for half-measures. No pilot can ignore the checklist on flight after flight without getting into serious trouble. A big-shot attitude toward the check list is risky and sets a bad example for your copilot and your crew. To old-time B-24 pilots, who have been through the mill, the checklist is as vital a piece of equipment as the rudders or the flaps. Approved Checklist Technique Develop a professional teamwork technique in using the checklist so· that you and your copilot are double-checking each other all the time. Require complete cooperation from your co pilot and engineer. Sloppy crew work is usually a direct reflection.of the attitude of the airplane commander. Following is approved checklist technique: 1. Pilot calls, "Checklist!" 2. Copilot picks up the checklist and holds it throughout the procedure. 3. Copilot calls out each checklist item in 38 sequence, in a loud, clear voice, and indexes the list with thumb or finger to be sure nothing is omitted. 4. Pilot, copilot or engineer makes a positive check of the item when it is called out and calls back the answer. Never start on the next checklist point until the preceding one is completed, or the resu!t will be confusion and omissions. Believe and practice this. Don't wait for bitter experience to prove it. Never say "Okay" without checking. Sloppy use of the checklist is responsible for more emergencies than almost any other form of pilot error. Snap Into It Get some snap into the checklist procedures. Alert, professional cockpit work with items called off and answered in clear, ringing tones will lift the spirits of your crew and get them on the ball just as a good quarterback's signals bring his team to life. RESTRICTED BEFORE STARTING ENGINES Following are the cockpit duties and checklist points for the before-starting check. Amplified Checklist 1. Copilot: "FORM 1 A?" Pilot: "Form IA checked!" Pilot's reply indicates that he has completed the required preflight inspection of Form lA. 2. Copilot: "LOADING?" Pilot: "Loading checked!" Pilot's reply indicates that he has completed the preflight requirements for proper loading. 3. _Copilot: "WHEEL CHOCKS?" Each pilot checks the chock on his side. Chocks should not be against the tire but should be 2 to 6 inches forward of the wheel. Parking brakes will normally hold the air plane. Chocks may become jammed under the tires if placed against them. Pilot: "Wheel chock in place left!" Copilot: "Wheel chock in place right!" RESTRICTED RESTRICTED 4. Copilot: "PITOT COVERS?" Each pilot looks at the pitot head on his .side of the airplane to be sure the pitot covers have been removed. Pilot: "Removed left!' Copilot: "Removed right!" 5. Copilot: "GAS TANK CAPS?" Security of caps is vitally important. If a gas tank cap isn't properly seated, gas may be syphoned out by the suction on top of the wing, rapidly emptying your tanks. Some of this gas will usually run back through the wing into the bomb bay, creating a danger ems fire hazard. Engineer: "Gas tank caps checked!" 6. Copilot: "FLIGHT CONTROLS?" Pilot and engineer check all controls. Engi neer puts his head out the flight deck escape hatch to watch control surfaces. The pilot moves controls to extreme positions calling out each set as he operates them. Pilot: "Controls checked visually!" Example: As the pilot moves the wheel full back he calls out, "Elevators," and the engi neer replies, "Elevators up." As the pilot moves the wheel full forward the engineer calls out, "Elevators dowri." The check con tinues: "Rudders"-"Rudders right," ... "Rudders left," ... "Rudders neutral,"-"Ail erons" -"Right aileron down, Left aileron up," ... "Right aileron up, left aileron down." 39 RESTRICTED 7. Copilot: "FUEL TANK VALVES AND AMOUNT?" Engineer: "Checked ... (number) gallons of gas and ... (number) gallons of oil aboard." 0 0 8. Copilot: "GENERATORS?" Copilot and engineer look back to check generators in "OFF" position. Generators are kept off until just before takeoff to prevent drain of battery current back to generator in case of faulty reverse current relay and be cause generators will not charge unless rpm is 1700 or more. Engineer: "Generators off!" 9. Copilot: "CARBURETOR AIR FILTERS?" In absence of dust and blowing sand, carbu retor air filters are always kept closed. Engi neer sets them as directed for local conditions. Engineer: "Carburetor filters (as required)." 40 10. Copilot: "MAIN LINE AND BATTERY SELECTORS?" Copilot turns on these switches and checks each battery selector separately by referring to the voltmeter reading to determine the battery condition. If the battery cart is used to start engines, turn on the main line switch but leave the battery selectors off. This di rects current from the battery cart through the main line bus and prevents drain of the plane's batteries. Copilot: "Main line and battery selectors on!" 11. Copilot: "AUXILIARY POWER UNIT AND HYDRAULIC PUMP?" The engineer starts the auxiliary power unit and turns on the hydraulic pump. The pump RESTRICTED cuts in to charge accumulators when the pressure drops below 975 lb. and cuts out at 1180 lb. W;hen No. 3 engine is operating, the engine-driven pump charges accumula tors through the unloading valve when pres sure drops below 850 lb., and cuts out at 1050 lb. Engineer: "Auxiliary power unit and hy draulic pump on." IN'BD BRAKE PRESSURE \ \i• I/ , ICIO .,, -0 ,, 2000: HYDRAULIC PRESSURE 0 OUT'BO BRAKE PRESSURE 12. Copilot: "BRAKE a:-RESSURE AND PARKING BRAKE?" The pilot applies the brakes, checks the in board and outboard brake pressure gages at 975 lb. to 1180 lb. and sets the parking brake. Pilot: "Pressure checked and parking brake on!" To set the brake, hold the brake pedals down, raise the parking brake handle and then re lease the brake pedals. Never force the handle either up or down or you will -snap the locking pin. 13. Copilot: "GYROS?" Pilot uncages the directional gyro and the flight indicator. Then, when the engine that provides suction is started (No. 1 or 2), the speed with which the flight indicator rights itself indicates its reliability. (Note: Jack and RESTRICTED RESTRICTED Heintz indicators must be uncaged and man ually righted after engines are started.) Pilot: "Gyros uncaged." 14. Copilot: "AUTOMATIC PILOT?" Pilot checks all switches on the automatic pilot in "OFF" position. If you attempt a take off with this unit connected, it is extremely difficult to overpower it. Pilot: "Automatic pilot off!" 15. Copilot: "SUPERCHARGERS?" Pilot checks all superchargers in "OFF" po sition. Superchargers should have been left off when the engines were last stopped so that waste gates are open. If waste gates are closed when you start the engines, the ex haust system or the turbo may be damaged by the excessive exhaust pressure. With elec tronic turbo control, set dial at zero. Pilot: "Superchargers off!" 41 RESTRICTED 16. Copilot: "PROPELLERS?" Copilot holds propeller toggle switches for ward to "INCREASE" rpm. If governor limit lights come on, propeller governors are set for full high rpm. Copilot: "Props in high rpm!" Caution: Be sure to move toggle switches forward; governor limit lights will also come on when toggle switches are moved back, and this would set the governor for full low rpm. 17. Copilot: "ALARM BELL?" Pilot gives the normal abandon-ship signal, listening for the bell himself as he does so, and each crew member replies by interphone that he has heard the bell. 18. Copilot: "AC POWER SWITCH" Copilot moves this switch to No. 2 inverter and checks it by switching on one booster 42 pump and noting a rise in fuel pressure on the corresponding fuel pressure gage. He then flicks off the booster pump, moves the AC switch to neutral, switches to No. 1 in verter and again uses the booster pump check. Copilot: "AC power on and checked!" Use the No. 1 inverter and save No. 2 as an alternate, emergency position. It is bad prac tice to switch back and forth between in verters. Note: On some late series aircraft an auto matic change-over relay is installed which switches from No. 1 to No. 2 inverter if No. 1 fails, and a red light on the instrument panel warns you that No. 1 is dead. The toggle switch is still used for checking inverters. 19. Copilot: "INTERCOOLERS?" Copilot checks intercooler shutters in open position which is normal. Copilot: "Intercoolers open." There is no advantage in closing intercooler shutters. If closed, they may cause overheat ing and detonation on takeoff. Check the proper operation of shutters by listening to each motor while moving switches to closed and back to open positions. If the motors can not be heard, the engineer or a member of the ground crew should check shutters in opera- . tion, checking them in the open position. RESTRICTED 20. Copilot: "PITOT HEATER?" Copilot flicks switch on and off while looking back at voltmeter for a flicker indicating current drain. The only accurate check is for the engineer to feel the pitot tube heat during his preflight. Engineer: "Pitot heaters checked!" 21. Copilot: "COWL FLAPS?" Copilot opens them and checks them on the right while the pilot checks them on the left. Cowl flaps are open while starting to help keep the engine cool and to facilitate putting out fires from the outside. Caution: Never close cowl flaps to hurry warm-up because this will damage the· igni tion harness, especially at the spark plug elbows, by excessive heating. Pilot: "Cowl flaps open left!" Copilot: "Cowl flaps open right!" 22. Copilot: "MIXTURE CONTROLS?" Copilot checks mixture controls forward in "IDLE CUT-OFF." Otherwise blower sec tion will be flooded when booster pumps are turned on, creating a fire hazard and making starting difficult. Copilot: "Mixtures in idle cut-off!" RESTRICTED RESTRICTED 23. Copilot: "WING FLAPS?" Copilot checks that the flap control handle is in the neutral position and that the flap indi cator shows flaps are up. Copilot: "Wing flaps up!" 1,-•1ew111 24. Copilot: "WING DE-ICERS; PROPELLER AND CARBURETOR ANTI-ICERS?" Copilot checks each in "OFF" position. Thi~ is vital. Even partial inflation of the wing de-icer boots reduces lift and increases the stalling speed. When on, propeller anti-icers will pump fluid on the ground an~ carburetor anti-icers (if so equipped) will pump fluid into the carburetors, enriching the mixture. Note-If exhaust heat anti-icing is installed, the cabin heat or anti-icing switches may be on if desired. Copilot: "All de-icers and anti-icers off!" As soon as the before-starting check is completed, you are ready to start engines. 43 RESTRICTED STARTING ENGINES Step-by-step prec1s10n in starting engines is the mark of a top-notch military pilot. There is a best way to do everything. Learn and per fect the best starting procedure and it will help to eliminate errors. Use the checklist pro cedure. It is the airplane commander's responsibility to see that engineer and ground crew under stand the standardized precautions for starting engines. These require one man posted as fire guard at the engine being started and a second man in view of personnel in the ~ockpit to relay signals t? the fire guard. Amplified Checklist 1. Copilot: Call "CLEAR!" Fire Guard Posted Copilot and pilot stick their h~ads out of their windows to check personnel and shout, "Clear!" Copilot checks that a fire guard is posted and holds UP, three fingers to indicate that he will start No. 3 engine first. 44 Copilot: "All clear and guard posted!" Start engines in sequence 3, 4, 2, 1, to keep guard from running through an outboa:r:d prop in case of fire and because the engine driven hydraulic pump operates off No. 3 engine. When engines are energized exter- nally, start in sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, to keep the ground-crew man safely clear of propellers. 2. Copilot: "IGNITION4SWITCHES?" Copilot turns on the ignition switches for all 4 engines. Copilot: "Ignition switches all on!" r 3 . . Copilot: "THROTTLES?" Pilot moves all throttles to cracked position, approximately 1/3 open. This prevents exces sive backfiring and overspeeding of engine on starting. Pilot: "Throttles cracked!" RESTRICTED 4. Copilot: "BOOSTER PUMP?" Copilot turns the booster pump on for the engine to be started to supply fuel pressure for priming and notes pressure, usually .about 8 lb. Copilot: "Booster pump on!" Priming Engine may be primed when fuel pressure is above 4 lb. Copilot primes by pressing the primer switch for one second and then releas- · ing it. The number of one-second shots will normally be not less than 3 nor more than 6 depending on the temperature of the engine and the outside air. This drives the fuel into the engine intake in spurts. Do the priming while you are energizing. Two Types of Starters Energizing time will vary with the 2 types of starters in use on B-24's. The old type requires 30 seconds. Switch is moved up to "START" for energizing and down to "MESH." Ener gizing stops when the switch is on "MESH." In the new-type starter there are separate RESTRICTED R E S T R I CT E o· switches for energizing and meshing. Move first switch up to "ACCEL" to energize for 12 sec onds and keep it there while you move the second switch to "MESH." Thus the energizing continues during the cranking or meshing. Some nameplates are marked "CRANK" in stead of "MESH." N0.1 N0.1 N0.3 N0.3 1111 ~ ~ ~ ~ ACCEL. MESH ACCEL. MESH (it) @. ~!@~ ,!:' ·~!' ·~ NO. 2 N0.2 ACCEL. MESH 0 ~ ~ ~ Old Type New Type 5. Copilot: "START ENGINES." a. While priming with one hand, copilot ener gizes starter with the other hand for required number of seconds. b. Copilot meshes starter and holds it meshed until the engine is definitely started because the booster coil or induction vibrator is hooked up to the meshing switch. If t e engine doesn't start immediately, use more priming. c. As soon as the engine fires, the pilot brings mixture control back to ''AUTO-RICH" and leaves it there. d. Copilot turns the booster pump off. e. Copilot watches the oil pressure gage and calls out, "Oil pressure coming up," if it is. If oil pressure does not rise within 30 sec onds, copilot puts mixture control in "IDLE CUT-OFF" and stops the engine. During the first 30 seconds of firing hold rpm as low as possible. Copilot: "No. 3 started." (Successive engines are started in the same manner.) Warm-Up Throughout the warm-up and other grounu operations, when not actually taxiing, idle the engines at 1000 rpm. Warm-up should continue until the oil temperature indicators for all en gines reach 40°C, minimum, and until cylinder head temperatures reach 120°C. 45 RESTRICTED 6. Copilot: "FLIGHT INDICATOR?" When No. 2 or No. 1 engine (whichever is supplying the vacuum) is started, pilot checks the speed and precision with which the flight indicator rights itself. If righting action is sluggish, the instrument needs re pair. (Note: Jack and Heintz Flight Indica tors Model JH 6500 must be left caged until the engine has been running for 5 minutes to allow rotor to gain full speed. Then uncage and check to see that it does not spill.) If an Engine Stops If an engine stops, immediately put mixture control in "IDLE CUT-DFF" and repeat entire starting procedure. If the propeller starts turn ing when you re-energize, release the energiz ing switch and cut the ignition switch "OFF." Then have a crew. member rock the propeller to disengage the. starter dogs. If an Engine Is Flooded If an engine becomes flooded, put the mixture control in "IDLE CUT-OFF" and open throttle fully until excess gasoline is cleared out and the engine begins to fire. Then immediately retard the throttle to % open and move mixture con trol to "AUTO-RICH." If an Engine Won 1t Mesh If an engine won't mesh or crank, and you want manual meshing, notify the man in front of the airplane by raising a clenched fist and pulling sharply downward. He will use the same signal to notify the fire guard who will then pull the manual meshing handle. The mesh switch on the copilot's panel should be used when meshing manually, even though it is apparently not working, since it also completes the circuit to the booster coil or induction vibrator. When all engines are started and warmed up, you are ready to begin the before-taxiing check. 46 BEFORE TAXIING Amplified Checklist Make a careful check before you start taxiing to make sure your engines, instruments, and radio are operating properly. All of the read ings given below are maximum and minimum limits based on rpm of 1000. ' 1. Copilot: "ALL INSTRUMENTS?" Directional gyro. Pilot pushes caging knob to caged position, spins and quickly uncages. Indicator should stop moving when uncaged. If it continues to spin, gyro requires repair. Try it both ways, left and right. Pilot: "Directional gyro checked!" Copilot checks the following: -- ' ' ' : ., a. Manifold Pressure. Check for steady indi cation. Erratic reading indicates defective in strument. --b. Tachometer. Check for steady indication at 1000 rpm. --c. Fuel Pressure. Should read 16 to 18 lb. RESTRICTED -- " I t ;\I• • I I ~\ 1 , I l//1 ' ., I 11 d. Oil Pressure. Should read 45 to 100 lb. Low reading may indicate oil shortage or pump failure. --e. Oil Temperature. Limits are 40° to 100°C. Desired range is 60° to 75°C. £. Cylinder-Head Temperature. Limits are 120° to 232°C for ground operation. Do not operate above 1000 rpm until head tempera ture is 120°c or more. g. Carburetor Air Temperature. If there is high humidity, ice may form during ground ,. operation if carburetor air temperature is below 15°C. Best operating limits are be tween 15°C and 35°C. Above 35°C there is likely to be detonation. -·· ■l¾wM z ■ilffil~■ h. Hydraulic Brake Accumulator Pressure. Check inboard and outboard gages indicat ing between 975 to 1180 lb. Don't start taxi ing if either gage falls below 950 lb. For an additional check on the hydraulic sys tem, put the flap control handle in the "UP" RESTRICTED RESTRICTED position; if it kicks out, the free-flow system is operating properly. i. Gear Warning Light. Should be lighted. j. Free Air Temperature. Check against tem perature you obtained in the weather office. You'll need this gage to anticipate icing con ditions. k. Compass. Check deviation card-in place and up to date. Copilot: "All instruments checked!" \\, ·,I ! I/ I ,,,"\\6/1/// ~ S TION ~ - -- - ~2 s-:::: - - % 0 10 f /I/ \\'' 2. Copilot: "VACUUM?" Engineer calls out No. 1 or No. 2 engine, (whichever is supplying vacuum). Pilot checks his gage and, if gage registers between 3. 75 and 4.25, calls "Checked." Engineer turns the vacuum selector valve to the other engine and the procedure is repeated. Valve should be turned to No. 2 after the check is com pleted. Pilot: "Vacuum checked on Nos. 1 and 2!" 47 RESTRICTED 3. Copilot: "RADIO, ALTIMETER, TIME." Copilot calls the tower for radio check, altimeter setting and correct time. · ' a. Radio check has three elements: (1) Fre quency: on frequency, or one or more kilo cycles low or high; (2) Readability, R ... 1 to 5; (3) Signal strength, S ... 1 to 5. Desired check is "On frequency, R5, S5." Copilot: "Radio checked!" b. Altimeter setting. Pilot sets altimeter at barometric pressure and notes difference be tween altimeter reading and actual field alti tude. Maximum error permissible is 50 to 75 feet. Pilot then re-sets altimeter at ac tual field elevation and notes error in baro metric reading. Thus, if the · tower gives a reading of 29.20 but altimeter reads 29.25 when set at correct field elevation, .05 should be added to any barometric reading obtained during the flight. As a rule-of-thumb guide only, .01 difference in barometric reading equals 10 feet altitude. Pilot: "Altimeter set." c. Time. Copilot checks cockpit clock time against tower report. Copilot: "Time checked." 4. Copilot: "WHEEL CHOCKS?" Pilot and copilot look out their windows to check chocks removed. Pilot: "Wheel chock removed left!" Copilot: "Wheel chock removed right!" 48 Note: If the airplane is equipped with elec tronic turbo control, always keep the dial set at zero for taxiing. ALWA VS USE AUTO-RICH FOR ALL GROUND OPERATION TAXIING Nothing makes a pilot and his crew feel more foolish than a taxiing accident that does sev eral thousand dollars worth of damage. Clumsy taxiing imposes severe strains on the nose gear, main gear, tires and other parts of the airplane, and negligence in taxiing will not be tolerated. Smooth, skillful taxiing technique is a must for 4-engine aircraft. When all checklist items through "Before Taxiing" are completed, and you have radio approval from the tower, you are ready to start taxiing. Check to make cer tain that your seat is well forward so that you are in a position for full rudder and brake control. RESTRICTED Position of Feet The position of your feet is important. Set your heels on the rudder pedals with your toes well up above the brake pedals. Always keep your toes off the brake pedals when not using the brakes. Only slight pressure will build up tre mendous friction and heat. Save your brakes for emergencies when you'll need them! POSITION OF FEET WHEN USING RUDDER POSITION OF FEET WHEN USING BRAKES Use of Rudder When learning to taxi, hold rudders neutral because rudder control is ineffective except at excessive speeds. Also, when you are holding full rudder, right or left, it is difficult to use the brakes effectively. Ask your copilot to help hold rudders neutral and to check the neutral position as you taxi. Safety Observer Post the engineer as observer with his head out the flight deck escape hatch to observe obstruc tions and signal "Clear left" and "Clear right." See that a ground-crew man is at each wingtip when taxiing in congested areas. Be sure the nosewheel is straight. I£ turned more than 30°, it should be straightened with a bar. If you start taxiing with th~ nosewheel RESTRICTED RESTRICTED turned, allow the airplane to roll a short dis tance in the direction it is turned and it will tend to straighten itself out. Don't force the air plane straight ahead with power and brake against a turned nosewheel. Results of Taxiing into Turned Nosewheel To Start Moving Reduce power to idling, fully depress the brake pedals and release the parking brake handle. Then follow it up by hand to make sure it is released. Advance all throttles slowly and even ly until the airplane starts to roll. Don't use excessive power, and, as soon as the airplane is in motion, reduce the power. Use of Throttles All 4 throttles are spring loaded, tending to hold higher rpm than idling. It is usually neces sary to hold back pressure on the throttles to 49 RESTRICTED keep from overspeeding. Throttles tend to creep forward unevenly at low power settings. Fre quently check the tachometer to maintain uni form power settings on all engines. Then you won't have to hold brakes against an over speeding outboard engine to maintain direc tional control. An expert at taxiing the B-24 can control it with throttles alone and without brakes. You can maintain speed equal to a brisk walk with 700 to 800 rpm on hard surfaces. If the airplane is easing to the right, add power to the right outboard engine but don't hold this power until the airplane swings back in line or it will swing past the desired point. Then you will have to add power on the left outboard and so on, building up excessive speed and S-ing. Develop an expert throttle touch. The best way to hold throttles is palm down with the throttle knobs against the padded part of the palm, third finger-joints on top of throttles and fingers curled over them. The ob ject is to be able to control any throttle sepa rately. Turns The B-24 is a big airplane. Get a mental picture of its radius of turn. The main gear at the in side of the turn is the turning point and it is far aft of your position in the pilot's seat. Your natural tendency is to turn too soon because you feel yourself going past the turning point. On a left turn the pilot should watch the in side wheel; on a right turn the copilot should watch the inside wheel. Note: You are controlling 20 to 30 tons of airplane and there is a delay between the ap plication of power and the reaction of the air plane. Think and act ahead of the airplane and anticipate its delayed reactions. How to Turn If the airplane is rolling at proper taxiing speed, no brakes are necessary to start the turn. Smoothly apply power to the outside engine to start the turn and remove power as soon as the airplane responds. Don't use excessive power. It is better to use too little throttle and then add more than to start too fast a turn and have to corr~ct with the opposite outboard engine. so V I I I I I I I I I I I I I R E S-T R I C T E D - - - - =- This produces · a seesawing action. If you build up excessive speed or turning action, throttle back, get control with the brakes and start over. Don't take a chance on dropping your airplane in a mudhole. RESTRICTED -- ' -~ - --- WATCH THE INSIDE WHEEL ON TURNS Don't Pivot The most common error in turning is to pivot the airplane sharply. Don't brake the inside wheel to a stop and then pivot around it. This grinds the tire against the ground or cement, twisting the ply and weakening the tire. ' \ WRONG \ .. __ ..._, -- RIGHT KEEP THE INSIDE WHEEL ROLLING RESTRICTED ... ~ ' ' ' ' ' ' \ \ \ \ ' 51 RESTRICTED Before starting to turn, when stopped, be especially careful to pick up forward motion and then to keep the inside wheel rolling steadi ly throughout the turn. Do not make short radius turns because the nosewheel should never be turned more than 30° from the center line. Bank-and-turn Indicator During turns while taxiing, make sure that the turn indicator is functioning properly, returns to neutral when the turn is completed and is not sluggish. Use of Brakes Brakes should be applied with a smooth, steady build-up of toe pressure. Sudden application of the brakes slams the nose down, puts heavy strain on the nose and main gear assemblies, and may damage the brake expander tubes. Require your copilot to check the accumula tor pressure every 30 seconds and report "Pressure O.K." or "Pressure below 800 lb." If pressure drops below 800 lb., stop the air plane in its tracks and don't move it until the trouble is corrected. Always taxi with the auxil iary hydraulic pump on. It should cut in when pressure gets below 975 lb. and should main tain pressure at 975 to 1180 lb. Stopping Always hold the airplane straight ahead when stopping so the nosewheel will be in the straight-ahead position. Apply sufficient brake pressure evenly to both brakes to slow the air- . 52 plane. This will vary with the speed of the air plane and the distance available for stopping. As the airplane slows, release brake pressure gradually. If you hold a constant pressure the nose will snub down sharply, causing a jerky stop. With proper use of the brakes, you can bring the airplane to a full stop with no snub bing of the nose. Save the· tremendous reserve power of your brakes for emergencies. It Takes a Lot of Room The B-24 has 110 feet of wing span, as much as 3 P-40's taxiing wingtip to wingtip. Give it a lot of room. Note: Taxi with all 4 engines running. If one propeller is feathered, the opposite engine may be cut for easier taxiing- but in no other case should engines be cut. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED ENGINE RUN-UP BEFORE TAKEOFF Every airplane has its own peculiarities and its own personality. This is especially true i11 time of war when series, equipment, and number of hours in the air vary widely from plane to plane. The engine run-up before takeoff is your opportunity to feel out your airplane, judge its condition and note its peculiarities. The B-24 blows a big breeze. Don't run up on the line unless local rules require it. Taxi to a point well clear of the takeoff runway (from which you can observe incoming traffic), and stop with the nosewheel lined up straight ahead. Fully depress the brake pedals, lift the parking brake handle to the locked position ( do not force it), and release the brake pedals. This :,hould lock the parking brakes. Set all throttles at 1000 rpm and faithfully follow checklist pro cedures during run-up. RESTRICTED Crew Positions For Takeoff and Landing ilf~ t ~-? EMPTY EMPTY EMPTY (REAR OF WAIST WINDOW) Be sure your crew know their positions for takeoff. No one should be in the nose compart ment because of the danger of injury if the nosewheel should collapse. No one should be aft of the waist gunner positions because this materially changes the center of gravity and causes tail heaviness. No one should be in the bomb bay. 53 RESTRICTED Usual positions: Pilot, copilot, engineer, radio operator, navigator and bombardier on flight deck; gunners just aft of bulkhead No. 6. Crew should not shift from their positions until the airplane is clear of the field and gear and flaps are up. At least one man in the rear compartment will be on interphone during taxiing, takeoffs and landings. BEFORE-TAKEOFF CHECK Amplified Checklist *1. Copilot: "TRIM TABS?" Pilot sets these as desired (normally 2° to 3° right rudder, elevators 1 ° to 2° up, and ailerons at 0°. The right rudder trim corrects for torque during takeoff. Pilot: "Trimmed for takeoff!" , *2. Copilot: "MIXTURES?" Copilot checks to see that all are in "AUTO RICH." Danger: Don't take off in "AUTO LEAN" because there is danger of detonation or engine failure. Copilot: "Mixtures in auto-rich!" ■ - . ' 3. Copilot: "EXERCISE PROPELLERS, TURBO- SUPERCHARGERS AND FLAPS!" Pilot sets all throttles at 1500 rpm. Then co pilot changes propeller governors from full high rpm to full low rpm and back, holding governor switches until propellers change all the way ( all governor limit lights on at each extreme position); the pilot advances super chargers slowly and retards them slowly sev eral times. This moves warm oil through the propeller dome assembly and to the super charger regulators, assures adequate lubrica tion of the .turbo wheel shaft bearings, and clears the balance lines for proper waste gate operation. At the same time the coP,ilot runs the flaps all the way down and back up, checking against the flap indicator. Then the pilot retards throttles to 1000 rpm. Pilot: "Turbo-superchargers exercised!" Copilot:, "Propellers and flaps exercised!" IT, IS NOT NECESSARY TO EXERCISE ELECTRON IC SU PE RC HARGERS *4. Copilot: "PROPELLERS?" Copilot double checks to see that propellers are left in high rpm because governor limit lights also come on when propellers are in low rpm. Copilot: "Propellers in high rpm!" *ITEMS WITH ASTERISK FOR SUBSEQUENT TAKEOFF. 54 RESTRICTED 5. Copilot: "RUN UP ENGINES!" Run up engines in the following order: 4, 3, 2, 1. Pilot advances No. 4 throttle until the propellers reach 2000 rpm and copilot checks all engine instruments. Copilot checks mag netos at signal from the pilot. Technique: (a) Check tachometer for steady reading on "BOTH." (b) Turn ignition switch to "LEFT MAGNETO" and hold 3 to 5 seconds. Note any drop in rpm (maximum allowable drop is 100 rpm). (c) Switch back to "BOTH" and hold until rpm is steady. (d) Switch to "RIGHT MAGNETO" and check same as right. (e) Switch back to "BOTH" and leave there. During magneto check pilot should watch engine nacelle for excessive vibration. Note: Where takeoffs are being made fre quently, clearing out the engines may be sub stituted for the full run-up procedure on subse quent checks. If takeoffs are infrequent, make a complete run-up each time. In either case, make the magneto check for all subsequent takeoffs. Copilot: "Magnetos checked!" DON'T INADVERTENTLY LEAVE THE IGNITION SWITCH ON LEFT OR RIGHT MAGNETOS. Run-up Procedure With Electronic Turbo Control When using the electronic turbo control, set the propeller governors in high rpm, and check the manifold pressure on each engine sepa- R EST RIC TED RESTRICTED rately by advancing throttle to full open posi tion. Then turn dial of turbo boost selector clockwise to the desired position (''8" with Grade 100 fuel). If the manifold pressure on any engine fails to come up to within 1" of take off pressure, with full high rpm, turn dial to zero and check engine rpm and manifold pres sure without turbo boost. This will show whether the low manifold pressure is caused by faulty engine operation or by insufficient turbo boost. Also check the voltage with gen erators on. If batteries are low, leave the gen erator of the engine you are checking on during run-up to insure proper turbo operation. After checking an engine, return the dial to zero before retarding the throttle. After you have checked all engines, set the dial to desired position for takeoff (''8" with Grade 100). Caution: When using electronic supercharger control, always be sure generators are on and operating for takeoff. Pilot: "NO. 4 RUN-UP COMPLETED!" (Repeaf the run-up operation for engines 3, 2, and 1.) Run-up With Oil Regulated Turbo Control Pilot advances throttle fully open, holding it there with his right hand while he advances the supercharger control with his left hand un til manifold pressure starts to increase. Pre caution: This is the most sensitive point in su percharger ".regulation. Hesitate briefly to allow the turbo surge to balance out and to avoid ini- 55 RESTRICTED tial excessive manifold pressure. As the mani fold pressure climbs and stops, move the super charger control slowly open and you should get a direct, smooth increase to the desired manifold pressure. When using Grade 91 fuel with the oil reg ulated turbo control, the spring-loaded stops on the control levers do not allow sufficient travel to give the extra manifold pressure needed in an emergency. (This is in contrast to Grade 100 fuel.) To be on the safe side, use your finger for an additional spacer to provide the neces sary travel. Note: Carburetor Air Filters When carburetor air filters are being used to overcome dust conditions, air normally taken in through the airscoop in the engine cow 1 is blocked off and air is taken through the filter, at the back of the nacelle. Friction and tlie elimination of ram pressure lowers the pressure of filtered air going to the superchargers. When not using filters, set superchargers 1.5" Hg. be low desired manifold pressure to allow for in take ram as speed increases during takeoff. When using the filter, use desired takeoff set- . ting with no allowance for ram. The turbo wheels have to turn faster to offset the loss of pressure through the filters. Turn the filters off as soon as you are out of the dust area (never leave them on above 12,000 feet) because there is a possibility of exceeding turbo wheel speed limits. *6. Copilot: "LOCK SUPERCHARGERS!'·' Pilot sets frietion lock so that levers may be readily moved but will not creep back from vibration. Remember that the throttle and supercharger locks are in reality friction brakes and should be trea~ed as such. Fric tion lock applies to oil regulated turbo con trol only. Pilot: "Superchargers set ;,ind locked!" *7. Copilot: "GYROS?" Pilot makes a final check, noting any preces sion since taxiing from the line, and re-sets for takeoff. Pilot: "Gyros uncaged and set!" FLAP P,~ITION -~~ ~~- D ..._ 40 I \ *8. Copilot: "WING FLAPS?" Copilot runs wing flaps down to 20° position. Copilot: "Wing flaps 20°!" *9. Copilot: "FLIGHT CONTROLS?" To check full travel and freedom of move ment, pilot moves controls to full forward ·and right on the wheel, right rudder; then moves them to full back and left on the wheel, left rudder. Pilot: "Controls checked for full travel and free movement!" *10. Copilot: "DOORS AND HATCHES?" Engineer closes doors and hatches. Engineer: "Doors and hatches closed!" *11. Copilot: "COWL FLAPS?" Copilot closes them to trail position. Copilot: "Cowl flaps at trail!" *ITEMS WITH ASTERISK FOR SUBSEQUENT TAKEOFF. 56 RESTRICTED See that cowl flaps are all closed the same. If open too much, they will cause loss of lift, increased drag, and severe flutter of the ·tail surfaces. It is better to have cowl flaps com pletely closed than too far open. Engines may idle at 1000 rpm. for a reasonable time with cowl flaps closed and not heat up. Don't take off if a head temperature is less than 150°C or more than 232°C. Desired level is 205°C. Note: Each degree of cowl flap opening pro duces .8 mph loss of speed. BOOSTER PUMPS BOOSTER PUMPS N0.1 N0.2 N0.3. N0.4 ~ (r) (r) ~ *12. Copilot: "BOOSTER PUMPS?" Copilot turns all fuel booster pumps on. This builds up a differential of 8 lb. in the rubber lines to the engine to keep them from col lapsing. It is also a safety precaution in case of engine pump failure. Copilot: "Booster pumps on!" RESTRICTED RESTRICTED *13. Copilot: "AUXILIARY HYDRAULIC PUMP AND POWER UNIT?" Engineer shuts these off to eliminate a fire hazard on takeoff. The auxiliary hydraulic pump is the only open-brush motor in the bomb bay and the cooling fan tends to draw any gas fumes into the motor. Engineer: "Auxiliary hydraulic pump and· power unit off!" cs. ••• 110,4 110,5 NO.l • *14. Copilot: "GENERATORS?" Engineer responds "Standing by" and switches on all 4 generators while takeoff power is being applied. He stands by the panel to turn off any generator indicating ex cessive load. If this is necessary, he waits un til the other generators show signs of sharing the load before returning the off generator to the line, and switches it off again if it fails to equalize. Engineer: "Generators on!" 57 RESTRICTED TAKEOFF Takeoffs are easy and smooth in the B-24 pro vided there is plenty of room and you use proper technique. Tricycle gear improves both the takeoff and landing characteristics. Be sure before you leave the line that the runway is long enough ( considering altitude, temperature, , etc.-see takeoff chart) and be sure there are no obstructions in your line of flight. Taxiing Into Position Get your clearance from the tower to line up on the runway. Take a good look for aircraft and taxi out in a wide sweep using a minimum of runway for straightening the nosewheel. Stop the airplane lined up straight ahead, hold your position with the brakes, and set all throt tles at 1000 rpm. Both pilot and copilot should make a final quick check on all instruments. 58 Then copilot obtains a radio clearance for take off and you are ready for the takeoff run. The Takeoff Run 1. Release the brakes and slowly but steadily advance all throttles together. Learn to apply power at the speed engines can readily take it. Never jam or stiff-arm the throttles. 2. If you start to move to the left of the mid dle of the runway lead the throttles on the left, and vice versa. Don't stop the opposite set of throttles, but instead lead all throttles pro gressively. In this manner you can build up speed rapidly and obtain rudder control quickly. Don't ever attempt to control direction on takeoff by the use of brakes. RESTRICTED 3. As soon as you have rudder control, use it! Come in with lots of rudder to hold your line down the runway, rather than using excessive and unnecessary build-up of power on one side. 4. Copilot follows throttles through with his left hand, and as soon as they are against the stops he sets the friction lock to prevent throt tles from creeping but so they still can be easily moved. Note: Pilot's hand should be on the throttles throughout the takeoff except when necessary to trim the plane or signal the copilot. Whenever pilot's hand leaves the throttles, co pilot should hold them. Copilot should closely observe all instruments (particularly manifold pressure and rpm). Use full throttle on takeoff. This shortens the run and minimizes wear and tear on tires and gear. Manifold pressure should not exceed 49" for Grade 100 fuel or 42.7" for Grade 91 fuel and propellers should not exceed 2700 rpm. Power reduction necessary to keep within manifold pressure limits should be made with the throttles and not with the turbo regu lators. 5. As your speed increases to 70 or 80 mph so that you have elevator control, ease back on the control column just enough to relieve the nose- AIRPLANE WILL FLY ITSELF OFF RESTRICTED RESTRICTED wheel of its weight. When full weight is on the nosewheel, the wing is at a negative angle of attack; lifting the weight puts the wing in the desired slightly positive angle. 6. Hold this attitude straight down the run way, and the airplane will fly itself off the ground at 120 to 130 mph, depending on the gross weight. Don't haul it off, however, and be sure the attitude is correct. If you apply too much back pressure, pulling the nose too far up, you establish too great an angle of attack, which creates more lift and puts the plane into the air at a lower airspeed-110 mph, for ex ample. Then, if you lower the nose to pick up airspeed, you decrease the angle of attack and therefore decrease the lift. The airplane cannot accelerate fast enough to compensate for this changed angle, and the result will be that you settle back or .. the ground. So don't try to make the airplane fly-let it fly itself. Once it does, increase the back pressure just enough to estab lish a shallow positive climb, and hold it. Note: Even if you have to get the airplane into the air at a low airspeed (in a short-field takeoff, for instance), don't lower the nose; hold ST ART YOUR TAKEOFF RUN RELIEVE NOSE WHEEL OF ITS WEIGHT 59 RESTRICTED your angle of attack and let the airspeed build up gradually. 7. Don't become over-anxious about build ing up climbing speed. It takes time for the power of the propeller thrust to overcome the inertia of a heavy airplane. Beware of lowering the nose below level flight to build up airspeed. Always make all changes of attitude gradually, a little at a time. Make frequent small changes rather than large ones. As your airspeed in creases, relieve heavy fore or aft control pres sure by trimming. If you set artificial horizon properly before takeoff, with the miniature airplane slightly be low the horizon bar, you can hold the proper angle of climb after leaving the runway by keeping the miniature airplane approximately 1/s-inch above the horizon bar. Establish and hold proper attitudes in the B-24 by reference to flight instruments rather than to outside objects. It's an instrument plane. 8. Attain a minimum airspeed of 140 mph and a safe altitude above all objects before your first power reduction. AFTER-TAKEOFF CHECK Amplified Checklist 1. Wheels. Copilot raises gear on signal from the pilot, (usually thumb jerked upward). As soon as the gear handle is in the "UP" position, pilot stops the wheels with smooth, firm appli cation of brakes. This reduces the strain on the 60 The copilot reads the after-takeoff checklist when the gear and flaps are up, the first power reduction is completed, and when a safe alti tude and an airspeed of 150 mph are reached. main gear suspension assemblies caused by the gyroscopic action of rapidly rotating wheels. Rough application of brakes puts undue strain on the gear fittings and may rupture an ex pander tube. Caution: There is no hurry about raising the wheels. Be sure you have plenty of airspeed and altitude before you start them up. Press the Button When the copilot raises the gear, he should be sure to press down the safety button located on top of the gear handle to unlock it. Forcing the handle against the lock will injure the locking pin. If the solenoid latch does not release, you can push the releasing pin in with a screwdriver and then raise the gear handle to bring the wheels up. The latch is located behind the pilot's instrument panel just forward of the pedestal. Don't try this on the ground because you will retract the gear and the airplane will crash down on its belly. 2. Superchargers. When the airplane attains safe airspeed (140 mph) and altitude, the pilot makes the first power reduction with super chargers and sets them for normal climb (not to exceed 46" for Grade 100 or 38" for Grade 91 fuels). Power Reduction With Electronic Turbo Control: Turn the turbo control dial back to ward zero until you reach the desired manifold pressure. 3. Throttles. If manifold pressure remains higher than desired for climb after super chargers are all the way off, then retard the · throttle to obtain climbing manifold pressure. RESTRICTED 4. Propellers. Copilot reduces rpm to 2550 when requested by the pilot. 5. Wing Flaps. Copilot raises them when di rected by the pilot. Don't raise the flaps before you have altitude of 500 feet and an airspeed of 140 mph. Remember that changes in flaps change the lift effect of the wing. As you raise the flaps, raise the nose of the airplane to cor rect for change in attitude. Use enough back pressure to maintain altitude and the airplane will rapidly accelerate to 150 mph" Don't lower the nose to gain this speed because this will result in unnecessary loss of altitude. Add nose up elevator trim to help maintain your altitude. In heavily loaded aircraft, it is advisable to raise the flaps from 20° to full up in two or three stages. Warning: Don't be in a hurry. Get a safe air- RESTRICTED speed and a safe altitude before you raise the flaps. But don't let airspeed exceed 155 mph with flaps down. BOOSTER PUMPS BOOSTER PUMPS NO. I N0.2 NO. 3 NO. 4 ~ G ~ ~ .,,, OH OH ~ ~ 6. Booster Pumps. Copilot switches them off one at a time above 1000 feet and notes any drop in pressure. 7. Cowl Flaps. Will normally be at trail for the climb, checked and set by the copilot. """··~ / ,, -. ................ ,,,,,.,,,' -.-......... • • __ ,,. .... RUNNING TAKEOFF Procedure 1. Bring the airplane down to a normal 2- poin t, nose-high landing. RESTRICTED ----------- 2. When speed has decreased to 80 mph (about 113 distance of a normal landing roll) , gently lower the nose to a normal 3-point posi tion. 3. Be sure you have ample runway left in which to re-accelerate and take off. 61 RESTRICTED 4. At command of the pilot, the copHot raises the flaps from 40° to 20° and trims for normal takeoff as the pilot smoothly applies normal takeoff power. Remember that the airplane is already moving fast, and don't advance throt tles too rapidly. 5. Speed permits the pilot to maintain direc tional control entirely with rudder. It isn't necessary to apply power unevenly or to use brakes. 6. Lift the weight off the nosewheel as soon as throttles are full forward. 7. A void a tendency to pull the airplane off the ground at low speed and at a high angle of attack. Build up adequate airspeed and break contact as in a normal takeoff. 8. In other respects, proceed exactly as in a normal takeoff. Caution: On running takeoffs watch cylinder head temperatures and open cowl flaps to trail if necessary. Warning: Don't hit the gear handle when you mean to raise the flaps. Remember you have full flaps down as you roll along the runway and are bringing flaps to 20 ° to re-establish normal takeoff settings. Copilots have been known to reach for the flap handle and unintentionally hit the gear handle from force of habit while wheels are still on the ground. Normally when the weight of the airplane is on the gear, gear handle cannot be moved to the up position. In a running take off, however, enough wei'ght may be off the gear while wheels are still on the concrete to allow oleo to extend far enough to close safety micro switch in the left main gear and allow the gear to unlatch and collapse. Don't let flaps come all the way up. The Davis wing needs 20° of flaps for additional lift. Don't raise the gear until you are safely clear of the ground. This is deceiving on runnning takeoffs. CRO.SSWIND TAKEOFF You will experience no difficulty with a B-24 in crosswind takeoffs. Proper leading of throt tles and use of rudder pressure will hold the airplane straight down the runway. Inherent directional stability of the tricycle landing gear tends to keep the airplane straight on its roll as long as the nosewheel is on the ground. There is no tendency to weathercock. Be sure, especially on bumpy runways, to 62 build up ample flying speed before leaving the ground. Otherwise the airplane may settle back down as it starts to drift and place severe strain on the landing gear. As soon as you are clear of the ground, hold the wings level and establish a crab with rudder to continue down the runway path. Don't drop a wing, because this reduces your lift. Continue as in a normal takeoff. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED HIGH-PERFORMANCE T·AKEOFFS Where it is necessary to take off in as short a distance as possible, execute a high-perform ance takeoff. This, on an average, reduces your ground run approximately 200 feet and reduces the total distance necessary to clear a 50-foot obstacle by approximately 600 feet. Be sure you have proper authority and are going to succeed before you attempt a high performance takeoff. Severa~ variables must be considered: Pressure altitude, free air tempera ture, model and weight of the airplane, wind, and type of runway surface. Don't take a chance. Taking all these variables into consid eration, precalculate the answers to 3 questions before you attempt a takeoff: 1. What ground run will be required? 2. What will the takeoff airspeed be? RESTRICTED 3. What distance will be required to clear a 50-foot obstacle? Use the high-performance takeoff chart in this manual (if suitable) or in the technical order for the model of airplane you are flying to answer these questions. Calculate carefully and double-check your answers. When you are satisfied that the high-performance takeoff can be safely made, use the following procedure. Procedure (Based on Grade 100 fuel) 1. Complete the before-takeoff check. Run up each engine separately to 2700 rpm and 47" manifold pressure. (This setting allows for a 1 ½" increase in manifold pressure due to ram.) 2. Set wing flaps at 20° as for a normal take off. Set cowl flaps at 5° to reduce drag. - 63 RESTRICTED EXAMPLE OF WHAT MAY OCCUR IF NOSE WHEEL IS NOT LINED UP WITH RUNWAY 3. Line up with the runway and make a posi tive check that the nosewheel is straight. 4. Hold the brakes and advance the throttles smoothly and evenly to establish 35" of mani fold pressure. Then release the brakes. 5. As rapidly as possible, advance the throt tles to full open position. 6. Make your takeoff run in a normal man ner until you reach your precalculated takeoff speed! Then use sufficient back pressure to break contact and gradually establish the de sired angle of climb. Some margin of safety is necessarily sacrificed by this procedure. 64 Another Good Method Here is another good method if you have room and can continue your roll from the taxi strip onto the end of the runway. Execute in the same manner as the first procedure, except that you roll directly from the taxi strip into your takeoff run without stopping. A void using brakes in the turn. Lead with throttles on the outside of the turn. When you have sufficient momentum to carry you through the turn, retard that set of throttles, and as the nose approaches the center line of the runway, advance throttles on the inside of the turn suf ficiently to check the turning action. Immedi ately follow up with the other set and advance all throttles progressively as rapidly as possible to the desired takeoff manifold pressure. This procedure gives you the advantage of having the mass weight of the airplane in motion at the extreme end of the runway, permitting you to take full advantage of every foot of runway available. Caution: You gain nothing by having too much speed in executing the turn. You are likely to roll a tire or damage the gear. The main thing is to have the weight in motion at the extreme end of the runway. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED RESTRICTED You will .judge the proper angle of climb by obstacles to be cleared, airspeed and the flight indicator. The best average airspeed for the climb after completing the after-takeoff check (wheels up, flaps up, etc.) is 150 to 160 mph. Pilot should relieve control pressures by proper trimming and copilot should synchron ize propellers as soon as convenient after wheels and flaps are up. Both pilot and copilot should keep a roving eye on all instruments to see that po~er, temperatures and pressures all stay within limits. Auto-rich for All Climbs Throughout all climbs mixture controls should be in "AUTO-RICH," for at high power it is 65 RESTRICTED necessary for the proportion of fuel to air to be relatively high to suppress detonation and assist in cooling. Effects of Increasing Altitude As altitude increases, these things are occur ring: The engines are generating more and more heat the longer they work at climbing power, tending to increase cylinder-head and oil temperatures; normally the indicated air temperature is gradually falling; atmospheric pressure is gradually decreasing; it becomes more difficult to obtain sufficient oxygen from the atmosphere. It is important to consider the effects of each of these conditions on your air plane and crew. Engine Heat 1. Cylinder-head Temperatures: Adjust cowl flaps to control head temperatures. Normally, head temperatures will run about 232°C but should never exceed the maximum of 260°C nor fall below 150°C, the operating limits of the engine during the climb. 2. Use of Cowl Flaps: Keep in mind that the position of cowl flaps seriously affects your rate of climb because of added drag and disturbance of the airflow-so much so that your airplane may not climb above 23,000 feet with cowl flaps only slightly open. Also, cowl flaps open from 10° to 20° will sometimes cause severe tail buffeting. If necessary to use more than 10° to maintain head temperatures within limits, try opening them farther until the tail buffeting stops. Note: On late series B-24 aircraft, differential cowl flap settings restrict the upper cowl flap opening to 12 ¼ 0 • 3. Oil Temperatures: Oil temperatures can · be reduced more quickly by decreasing engine rpm along with throttles than by reducing the throttles alone. 4. Other Methods: Another good way to re duce both cylinder-head and oil temperatures is to shallow your climb so that your IAS is 5 to 10 mph greater than normal climbing airspeed. C L I M B I N G POW E R 5 E TT I N G 5 · GRADE 100 FUEL-SPECIFICATION ANF-28 Operation Climb Climb Setting Desired Max. Mixture Auto-rich Auto-rich RPM 2550 2550 MP 41 46 GRADE 91 FUE·L-SPECIFICATION ANF-26 Operation Climb Climb Setting Desired Max. Mixture Auto-rich Auto-rich RPM 2550 2550 MP 35 38 Time Limit Continuous Continuous* Time Limit Continuous 1 Hr. BMEP 167 186 BMEP 147 160 HP 990 1100 HP 870 950 *Cyl. head temp. not to exceed 232° C. For temperatures of 232° to 260° C, time limit is 1 hour. The above are normal limits. Variations within limits will be governed by the type of operation for a particular organization. 66 RESTRICTED This will not cause much loss in your rate of climb. In case of extreme cylinder-head and oil tem peratures, use emergency "FULL RICH" mix ture (with Bendix-Stromberg carburetors). This will dissipate the heat very rapidly but will also cause a loss of power and excessive gas consumption. Use only long enough to re duce temperatures. Excessive temperatures are sometimes caused by failure of the automatic feature of "AUTO-RICH." "FULL RICH" cor rects this because it gives a fixed mixture. Decreasing Air Temperature 1. Carburetor Air Temperature: On an ex tended climb when the relative humidity is high, check regularly to be sure your carbu retor air temperature is either above or below the icing range (-5°C to +15°C). You can get carburetor ice with little or no warning. 2. lntercooler Shutters: Hot compressed air is coming to your carburetor from the super charger through the intercoolers. Intercooler shutters are kept in the open position to cool this compressed air. It is practically never nec essary to close intercooler shutters except in very severe carburetor icing conditions. (See Carburetor Icing.) If you do close them, keep a close watch to see that both carburetor air tem peratures and cylinder-head temperatures don't suddenly rise beyond limits. Intercooler shut ters should always be used with utmost caution to avoid overheating. 3. Heater: Remember that there are crew members all over the airplane who may be get ting cold. Ask them if they want some heat. The longer you can keep them warm the more effective they will be with their headwork, , their bombs, and their guns. Crew comfort is important to crew efficiency. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED Decreasing Atmospheric Pressure 1. Airspeed Indicator: Decreasing atmos pheric pressure causes your airspeed indicator to show an airspeed lower than your true one. 2. Manifold Pressure: The density and pres sure of the outside air is decreasing a:s altitude increases. At sea level normal atmospheric pressure will, on some engines, be sufficient to· maintain the desired manifold pressure. As altitude increases, and full throttle fails to give sufficient manifold pressure, you add boost with the turbo-superchargers. 20,000 15,000 10,000 - - - - - - CHECK~ MANIFOLD PRESSURE CYLINDER HEAD TEMPERATURE OIL TEMPERATURE CARBURETOR AIR TEMPERATURE CABIN HEAT FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS Note: With oil-type turbo regulator, when climbing at a given throttle setting, rpm, and turbo regulator setting, the manifold pressure will increase slightly as altitude increases be cause the atmosphere has less back-pressure effect in relation to the constant exhaust pres sure. This results in a steady increase in turbo wheel speed and thus increased manifold pres sure. 3. Booster Pumps On at 10,000 Feet: As you climb and the atmospheric pressure decreases, 67 RESTRICTED there is more and more tendency for a vapor lock to form and for suction from your engine driven fuel pump to collapse the rubber fuel lines. Booster pumps put 8 lb. additional pres sure in the lines to help support them. Turn the booster pumps on at 10,000 feet and keep them on until you descend below that altitude. 4. Crew: As altitude increases, your crew is becoming less efficient. Their ears tend to bother them. Head congestion may cause severe pain. They are getting insufficient oxygen. Always use oxygen above 10,000 feet. The Importance of Smooth Flying Smooth, steady flying, proper trim, and mini mum horsing of the airplane become more and more important to maximum performance as altitude increases. Steady, expert flying will reduce your fuel consumption, eliminate haz- . ards, increase your rate of climb, and reduce wear and tear on your engines. Remember that the only way you can main tain a constant attitude, steady climb and smooth fiying in the B-24 is by reference to instruments. LEVELING OFF Always level off for cruising from the top in both speed and altitude. The purpose of this is to let the airplane build up full momentum for cruising. If you go directly from a climb to level flight · with a B-24, and reduce power, it will mush along at a high angle of attack and in a high 'drag attitude while trying to gain speed. It will fly sluggishly and inefficiently. The heavier your load, the more important it is to level off properly. Leveling-off Procedure 1. Continue your climb 300 to 500 feet above the desired cruising altitude. 2. Level off, drop the nose slightly to get on the step and pick up speed. 3. Reduce power to cruising setting and grad ually descend to your cruising altitude. 4. Synchronize propellers anrl trim the air plane. Cool Off the Engines Remember that throughout the climb the en gines have been generating heat. Give them a chance to cool down somewhat below desired cruising temperatures before you change to "AUTO-LEAN" mixture settings. This allows cylinders, blower and rear sections to dissi pate heat. A well-cooled engine is less likely to detonate when the mixture is leaned than a hot engine. To aid cooling, don't close the cowl flaps im mediately upon completing the climb. Instead, close them progressively as airspeed builds up . . --··r·--, . ~- - RIGHT ./ 300 TO 500 FEET , ~' __ l _______ ~----~ 68 DESIRED ALTITUD~·-•· .. ~ •► ~~ WRONG --~~~ RESTRICTED J HOW TO SYNCHRONIZE PROPELLERS The copilot brings propellers to the desired tachometer setting with the propeller governor control switches. Although rpm readings are identical for all 4 engines, propellers may not be perfectly synchronized because of slight variations in tachometers. To synchronize, co pilot should follow this procedure: 1. No. 1 and No. 2 Propellers: Leave No. 2 (inboard) as it is. Note the rotating shadow around the top half of No. 1 propeller. If the shadow is rotating away from you, the pro peller is too slow and should be increased; if the shadow is rotating toward you, the pro peller is too fast and should be decreased. 2. No. 3 and No. 4 Propellers: Leave No. 3 (inboard) a~ it is. Note the rotating shadow around the top half of No. 4 propeller. Here the procedure is reversed. If the shadow is rotating away from you, the propeller is too fast and should be decreased; if the shadow is rotating toward you, the propeller is too slow and should be increased. Note: An easy way to keep this straight is by remembering that all propellers in the B-24 rotate to the right. Thus, from the cockpit, No. 1 propeller is turning toward you and No. 4 going away from you. If the shadow is rotating with the propeller, then the propeller is too fast; if the shadow is rotating backward ( against the propeller rotations) , then the propeller is too slow. 3. Increase or decrease rpm by a split-second flick of the toggle switch and at the same time check the effect on the shadow. The shadow will disappear when propellers are synchro nized. 4. If the shadows have disappeared and the engines still sound unsynchronized ( engine beat or pulsation), then No. 1 and No. 2 are not synchronized with No. 3 and No. 4. 5. To synchronize the left pair of engines with the right pair, check the tachometers to see if one pair is indicating less than the de- REST RIC TED RESTRICTED sired rpm. If so, flick both switches for that pair forward at the same time and back to neutral quickly. Repeat until you eliminate the beat and get a steady drone. If the beat gets worse, decrease rpm instead of increasing. 6. Now all 4 propellers should be synchro nized. However, the propeller governors £qr the propellers that were changed as a pair may respond unevenly. If so, re-synchronize them. Note: The difference in needle travel on the tachometers will tell you which propeller gov ernors are fast and which are slow. With prac tice you will be able to lead with the toggle switches for slow-acting governors to bring all propellers to the desired rpm at the same time. At Night Use your landing lights or a flashlight to see which way the shadows are turning. With ex perience it is possible to synchronize propellers by sound 69 RESTRICTED TRIMMING Trimming the B-24 is a routine procedure but tremendously important to the easy and proper operation of the airplane. Brawny, 200-lb. pilots have exhausted themselves in an hour's flying because they failed to trim properly and fre quently enough. Poor trim cuts down the air speed, increases fuel consumption, lowers the speed and ceiling of a climb, and decreases the efficiency of the airplane and the pilot. Forma tion flying is a nightmare if the airplane is poorly trimmed. Trim the B-24 by instruments-not by visual reference to outside objects. But keep a sharp lookout for other traffic at all times. Following is the easy, sure way to properly trim the airplane for straight and level flight. Balance the Power See that you are using balanced power. Propel• lers· should all be synchronized and you should have equal manifold pressure on all engines. This is important! Manifold pressures must be equalized to a hair to give balanced power. Elevators 1. Check the altimeter with the flight indica tor and reset the latter if necessary for level flight. 2. Hold the airplane level with reference to the flight indicator and adjust elevator trim to 70 relieve any fore and aft pressure required to hold the nose level. Rudders 1. Hold the wings level with the ailerons by reference. to the flight indicator and remove all rudder pressure. 2. Watch the directional gyro to see if the airplane is turning. Gradually correct with rudder trim until the directional gyro holds a steady course straight ahead. Ailerons 1. Level the wings, hold a gyro heading with rudder, and release the wheel. 2. If the flight indicator shows a wing is dropping, correct with aileron trim. Double-check Finally, check the directional gyro, flight indi cator and needle and ball with hands and feet off controls to make sure of proper trim. Once the airplane is properly trimmed, small adjust ments will usually keep it there. Trimming should become automatic. When to Trim Trim at the first sign of excessive control pres sure. You will want to trim for climbs, descent, gear down or up, flaps down or up, when the crew changes positions, as the fuel is used up, when your bombs are dropped, in case of en gine failure, etc. Relationship of load and Trim If the airplane is perfectly loaded, it is possible to fly it hands off with one or two degrees of tab setting. On long flights tab settings become extremely important. A loss of 3 to 4 mph in airspeed can result from 1 ° of tabs on one con trol surface. Thus, if your ship is improperly loaded and you have to use a lot of trim, it is worth while to shift cargo to establish better balance. Don't kid yourself by holding pressures man ually instead of using trim. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED CRU.ISING • Normal Automatic Lean Pressures and Temperatures 1. Cylinder Temperature: 232° C maximum. 205 ° C desired. 2. Oil Temperatures: 100° C maximum. 75 ° C desired. As soon as you h(lve leveled off, syn chronized propellers, trimmed the airplane, and let the engines cool down, check all instruments preparatory to going into auto lean. 3. Oil Pressures: 65 to 100 lb. sq. in. 4. Fuel Pressures: 16 to 18 lb. sq. in. C R U I 5 I N G P O W E R 5 E.T T I N G 5 GRADE 91 FUEL-SPECIFICATION ANF-26 Operation Setting Cruise Normal Cruise Local Mixtures Auto-lean Auto-lean RPM 1650-2100 2000 GRADE 100 FUEL-SPECIFICATION ANF-28 Operation Setting Mixtures RPM Cruise Maximum Auto-rich 2325 Cruise Maximum Auto-lean 2200 Cruise Desired Auto-lean 2000 MP 30 30 MP 35 32 30 Cruise Maximum Range: See Cruise Control Charts. RESTRICTED Time Limit Continuous Continuous Time Limit Continuous Continuous Continuous BMEP 131 BMEP 150 140 131 HP 610 HP 820 715 610 71 RESTRICTED Automatic Lean If instrument readings are satisfactory, and power settings permit "AUTO-LEAN" opera tion, copilot ( at the pilot's direction) moves the mixture controls one at a time to "AUTO LEAN." Pilot and copilot note the effect of this on temperatures and pressures. Carburetor air temperature should stay be low 35°C. Excessive heat may cause detonation. If an engine gets hot in "AUTO-LEAN" (a less cooling mixture), go to "AUTO-RICH" long enough to cool it down. If it stays hot in "AUTO-LEAN," the automatic feature may not be operating properly and you may have to use "AUTO-RICH" for that engine. Superchargers Low altitude: · If crmsmg at low altitude you may have sufficient manifold pressure with superchargers completely off. (Watch for icing, however. If there is danger of icing, close in tercoolers and operate as close to full throttle as possible. See Carburetor Icing.) Above 20,000 feet: Superchargers won't func tion properly at less than 1800 rpm above 20,000 feet because in less dense air there is insufficient exhaust gas to operate the turbo wheel properly. Don't suspect turbo regulator trouble until you have checked rpm. Cowl Flaps Regulate cylinder-head temperatures with cowl flaps. The closed position reduces drag and in creases speed, but also increases engine tem peratures. Directional Gyro Check and correct for precessing at least every 15 minutes or as necessary. NOTE Although pilot and copilot will be checking instruments regularly, it is a good idea to call for a complete check and report by the copilot at stated intervals. Flying the Airplane Take pride in your ability to fly the airplane perfectly. You can't expect your copilot or 72 your crew to develop keen interest in the technique of their jobs unless you set an out standing example. Trimming: Keep your airplane perfectly trimmed throughout the flight. This will save wear and tear on both yourself and your air plane. Heading: Hold your heading or your navi gator will give up in disgust. If you are going to change headings or di~e or climb, warn your navigator in advance exactly what to expect. Altitude: Hold your altitude. Don't be satis fied with 200 feet higher or lower. Airspeed: As time passes and your load lightens, your airplane will tend to gain air speed. Maintain your predetermined IAS by reducing power every 1 to 3 hours. This is a · go0d rule of thumb for efficient cruising. Fly the airplane as if you e~pected to use it in a combat mission tomorrow. Flight Performance Record It is the copilot's duty, with the assistance of the engineer, to keep a flight performance rec ord of every mission. Entries should be made every 30 minutes. Properly kept this form will: 1. Warn you of excessive gas consumption. 2. Give a running picture of the perform ance of engines. 3. Provide a check on how efficiently you are flying the airplane. Engineer's Hourly Visual Check Require the engineer to make a visual check once an hour of turbo, cowl flaps, nacelles, fuel cell areas, etc. Many items will have to be checked from the rear of the airplane. When on oxygen, check can be conducted with the use of a walk-around bottle. Oxygen When on oxygen, require the copilot to check crew stations at least once every 15 minutes by interphone to ascertain that crew members are all right and have an adequate supply of oxy gen on hand. RESTRICTED GENERAL FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS The flight 'characteristics of the B-24 are out standing without exception if the airplane is properly loaded. It has no abnormal or bad characteristics. The tremendous power plant will carry huge loads great distances at high speeds with ease. Inherent Directional Stability The airplane has inherent directional stability which may be maintained for long periods by slight adjustments in trim. However, controls are normally heavy, as they should be in a heavy airplane, and the pilot who fails to main tain proper trim is ip for an exhausting work out. Properly trimmed, the airplane will fly the desired heading true as an arrow with com fortable control pressures. Longitudinal Stability Longitudinal stability is excellent over a wide range of center of gravity locations. Under nor mal loadings the airplane will return to normal flight when released from a stall or other ab normal positions. However, when fully loaded, the airplane increases its weight by ½ to ¾. If the center of gravity moves too far forward or too far aft, it is easily possible to develop limit load factors. Exercise care in using con trols smoothly and gradually when operating near these limits, especially when the center of gravity is in extreme aft positions, because it is easy to develop excessive strain on the tail assembly with sudden heavy elevator pressure. Characteristics in Rough Air The intelligent pilot will avoid violent turbu lence because the forces of some storms are incalculable in their intensity. There is nothing critical in ordinary rough-air operation with the Liberator. It will maintain stable flight. It is a waste of effort to fight every slight de viation from level flight. Use pressures to maintain generally level flight and the airplane RESTRICTED RESTRICTED will hold its own. Inherent stability will tend to return the airplane to level flight. In a heavy airplane like the B-24, this action is compara tively slow, so give the airplane time to settle down. In extremely turbulent air slow down to 150 mph. For additional drag and to avoid too great a decrease in power, extend the landing gear but bear in mind that this will have a serious effect on your rate of fuel consumption. Don't Fly Contact The B-24 is strictly an instrument airplane. You must fly by reference to instruments by day and by night, fair weather or foul, if you expect to get the most out of your airplane. The only reason they put windows in the air plane is to permit you to see other aircraft and mountains - so don't fly contact! Remember, however, that it is easy to control the attitude of the airplane by reference to instruments and still keep a sharp lookout. Don't let the instru ment panel hypnotize you. Even when the sky seems empty, be heads-up for traffic. Remem ber what you learned in flying school about the swivel head and the rubber neck. You still need them. Keep crew mem hers on the alert as lookouts, too, as an additional safeguard while you work at the double job of flying by instru ments and watching the air around you. FLIGHT INSTRUCTIONS At no time will the following maneuvers be attempted: LOOP ROLL SPIN INVERTED FLIGHT IMMELMANN VERTICAL BANK 73 RESTRICTED Always follow all items on checklist. Always check fuel before takeoff and regularly during flight. Always check nosewheel accumulator-if pro vided. Always open intercoolers for starting. Always use battery cart when available. . Always check generator switches "OFF" when starting. Always use "AUTO-RICH" except when cruising. Always check de-icers "OFF" before takeoff or landing. Always use outboard engines for steering when taxiing. Always turn "OFF" auxiliary hydraulic pump before takeoff. Always check gear latches engaged before landing. Always check the automatic pilot "OFF" before takeoff or landing. Never execute prohibited maneuvers. Never exceed airspeed restrictions. Never start engines before pulling props through. Never start ~ith low batteries. Never start with auxiliary power unit alone. Never start with superchargers "ON." Never use starter for direct starting. Inertia fly wheel must be energized before meshing. Never attempt to use intermediate positions on mixture control. Never turn on ground too sharply. It will damage landing gear and tires. Never attempt to take off with props in low rpm. Never transfer fuel with radio "ON." Never apply brakes with nosewheel off ground Never land with brakes locked. 74 AIRSPEED LIMITATIONS Maximum Limiting Factor Indicated Airspeed 40 ° Flaps .......................... 155 mph 10 ° Flaps .......................... 180 mph Lowering Landing Gear ............. 155 mph 41,000 lb. Gross Weight ............. 355 mph 56,000 lb. Gross Weight ............. 275 mph Automatic Pilot: Do not operate the auto matic pilot when flying at less than an indi cated airspeed of 155 mph or when flying in extremely turbulent air. Extremely Turbulent Air: Slow down to IAS of 150 mph. Maximum Gross Weight of 56,000 lbs.: Do not attempt other than normal flight. Permissible flight factor-2.67; permissible landing factor- 2.25. Emergency Maximum Gross Weight of 64,000 lb.: Do not attempt other than normal flight. Permissible flight factor-2.3; permissible land ing factor-2.0. Operate only from smooth fields and do not exceed cruising speeds until load has been expended to 56,000 lb. STALLS The B-24 has no unusual stall characteristics. It has sufficient reserves of power; there is no excuse for getting into a stalled condition if the airplane is operated normally. Various Factors Affecting Stalling Speeds Wheels down will increase the stalling speed of the airplane from 3 to 5 mph. The operation of de-icer boots will have a serious effect on the stalling speed. The degree of cowl flap opening will reduce airspeed and affect stalling speeds accordingly. A feathered propeller is much less of a drag on the airplane than a windmilling propeller. An engine operating at 11" manifold pressure is the equivalent of a feathered propeller. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED COMPARISON OF STALLING SPEEDS Gross Weight Lbs. NO 45,000 56,000 POWER 64,000 40% 45,000 56,000 POWER 64,000 Caution: All stalling speeds given in this manual have been test flown but speeds will vary slightly from airplane to airplane, of the same weight and series. Speeds given serve as a basic guide only. Warning of Stalls: Usually the~e is clear warning of an approaching stall. Controls will loosen somewhat and airspeed will be falling off. You will observe a shuddering of the tail and a slight pitching action. The Stall: In the approach to a stall ( the usual practice maneuver) the nose will have an increasing tendency to drop. In a complete stall, the airplane will tend to fall off to either side without any inherent tendency to spin. Recovery From Stalls: The stall recovery in the B-24 is like that in almost any other air plane for the most part: 1. Lower the nose to regain flying speed. Be cause of its aerodynamically clean design, the B-24 will lose a great deal of altitude and pick up speed rapidly. 2. If the stall occurs with decreased power, don't increase power until you have lowered the nose. The purpose is to establish airspeed and prevent rolling action caused by torque. 3. If a wing drops and airplane is turning, correct with rudder. Don't use ailerons. Ailer ons increase the drag, aggravate the stall and RESTRICTED Wing Flaps and Wing Flaps 40° L.G. Retracted l.G. Extended IAS IAS 110 91 123 101 132 109 103 71 114 80 123 85 prolong recovery. You can stop the turn and level the wings with rudder alone. 4. As your nose-low attitude builds up air speed, blend in power gradually. 5. Don't attempt to raise the nose too rapidly before you regain speed or it is possible to cause a secondary stall more violent than the original one. 6. Properly executed, you will blend in power and raise the nose to level flight so that as you level off you will have established cruising airspeed and normal power settings. WARNING CONCERNING APPLICATION OF POWER Never attempt recovery. from a stalled condi tion by immediate application of power. Those wings are a platform with thousands of horse power w,aiting to be lashed into action. When you are in a stalled condition, the platform loses its stability and, if you jam on power, torque may violently roll the airplane to the left. Always lower the nose, straighten with rudder, and blend in power with your gain in airspeed. 75 RESTRICTED TURNS Turns in the B-24 should be made by refer ence to the flight indicator, the directional gyro, needle and ball, altimeter and airspeed indi cator. One-needle-width turns are normal and will vary in degrees of bank from approximate ly 20 ° for 150 miles an hour up to 25 ° for 200 miles an hour. Ex~ept in emergency, it is recommended that banks not exceed 45 ° be cause the load factor at 60 ° is 2 G's or twice that of level flight. In turbulent air a 60° bank might impose loads far in excess of 2 G's. Steeper banks very rapidly increase this load factor to an unsafe degree. In moderately load ed airplanes banks up to 60° can be made easily and safely, but with heavy loads aboard safety is sacrificed as banks are steepened. Since rough or turbulent air constantly changes load factors, it is wise to limit banks 76 to one-needle-width turns in rough air and to reduce airspeed to 150 mph. How to Enter the Turn Drop a wing with aileron pressure to enter a turn, coordinating necessary rudder and back pressure on the elevators. Only slight rudder is necessary. Control resistance is heavy and the response of the airplane is slow and grad ual. Don't stop short of the desired degree of bank and then expect the wing to keep drop ping. Bring it all the way down to the desired degree of bank and then stop it. It will be nec essary to hold aileron against the bank to keep it from getting steeper. The amount of aileron will vary with the degree of bank. Difference in Turns In a left turn, torque gives the B-24 a slight tendency to lose altitude, so it is necessary to come in early with back pressure to keep the nose from dropping. RESTRICTED In a right turn, torque causes the airplane to want to climb as you start the turn and the air plane holds its altitude slightly longer, so you delay the use of back pressure accordingly. Rolling Out of the Turn Keep in mind that you are controlling a large mass of weight on a platform that stretches 55 feet out on each side of you. Establishing a turn ~nd rolling out of it take time. To roll out of a 30° bank on a heading, give your roll-out about 15 ° of lead. Your roll-out will require smooth, solid application of controls, and as in rolling in, it is necessary to roll all the way out to level flight. Don't relax ailerons until you are level by the flight indicator. Proportion of aileron used is much greater than rudder on both entry and recovery compared with other planes. The common tendency of most pilots on the B-24 RESTRICTED is to overcontrol with rudder, throwing ball off center. Make allowances for torque again in the roll out. You'll have to use more back pressure in a left turn than in. a right turn and will need some forward pressure in the roll-out from a right turn to keep from climbing as you near level flight. Stalls in Turns There is little danger of stalls in turns if you maintain required airspeeds and do not force the turn. But remember that there are many factors affecting stalling speeds, including pow er settings, weight, wing flap setting, degree of bank, cowl flap setting, use of de-icers, and landing gear position. The table of stalling speeds in turns gives you an idea of how variable this factor is and how rapidly stalling s·peeds increase in turns. HOW STALLING SPEEDS INCREASE IN TURNS Wing Flap 30° 60° Gross Weight Position Bank Bank IAS IAS oo 115 152 43,000 lb. 20° 101 133 40° 86 113 oo 124 163 50,000 lb. 20° 109 143 40° 93 122 oo 131 173 56,000 lb. 20° 115 152 40° 98 129 NOTE: Excessive back pressure in any of these turns will cause the stalling speeds to be much higher. RESTRIC TED 77 RESTRICTED 78 0 b I J C • "1" ANGLE OF BANK 100 MPH LOAD FACTOR .1.065 -1.31 -2.00 150 MPH ~ 11.5°/SEC . 10.2° . ~ ~ -3°/SEC. -6°/SEC. 12°/ SEC. 200 MPH 300 MPH ANGLE OF BANK FOR 3°/ SEC. TURN I~--- ~ L ✓ • . :__..;..; :;r /, 13.5° 19.8" 25.6° - 35.75° ANGLE OF BANK FOR 1½0 / SEC. TURN Ld a.._.. .· ...----=: __ .,~~ 6.85° 10.2° 13.5° 19.8° RESTRICTED DIVES Diving Speed Limits 41,000 lb .............. 355 IAS 47,174 lb .............. 325 IAS 56,000 lb .............. 275 IAS Never violently dive the B-24. Under normal flying conditions you will never have occasion to exceed 250 mph in a dive. The airplane can take it up to certain limits but these limits vary greatly with the amount and position of load ing. Air loads build up rapidly in a large air plane so avoid abrupt movements of controls. In any normal dive always keep the airplane trimmed by use of trim tabs. If you attempt to hold forward elevator pressure without the use of trim tabs or against opposite trim, sudden relaxing of this pressure may, because of the extreme leverage action, cause buckling of the fuselage. It is better to trim slightly nose-hea:vy rather than tail-heavy. If trimmed tail-heavy in a dive, the inherent tendency of the airplane to pull up makes application of up-elevator easier and more abrupt, creating large loads. RESTRICTED In an extended dive when airspeed tends to build up too much, reduce power as necessary but don't pull it entirely off longer than neces sary. This would allow the engines to cool down too much. Recovery From Dives For dive recoveries the airplane requires plenty . of altitude. In contrast with maintaining a dive, always pull out of dives by manual pressure without the use of trim tabs so that you can feel the amount of pressure you are using. Otherwise you can build up tremendous ele vator strain too fast by trimming out of the dive with possible structural failure. It takes a lot of space and a lot of pressure to change the di rection of 25 tons of airplane hurtling down ward at 200 to 250 mph. Wait until you have re-established level flight, and then re-trim and advance power to the desired airspeed. Combat Emergency: If, in combat, your ele vator control cables were shot away and you were thrown into a dive, you could trim your way out with elevator tabs. Apply trim gradu ally, because you are using great leverage. AIR-SPEED CORRECTION TABLE TYPE G-2 PITOT HEADS AND FLUSH-TYPE TYPE D-1 PITOT STATIC TUBES. STATIC HEADS. IAS IAS CORRECTED MPH Instrument Wing Flaps Wing Flaps Reading Wing Flaps Extended Extended MPH Retracted 20° Down Full Down IAS CORRECTED MPH IAS Instrument Wing Flaps Wing Flaps Wing Flaps Reading Extended Retracted 20° Full Down 90 -- -- 85 90 -- -- 80 100 -- -- 96 100 -- -- 95 110 -- 105 107 110 -- 109 108 120 -- 116 118 120 -- 118 119 130 127 127 130 130 127 128 129 140 137 142 139 140 138 139 140 150 147 150 148 150 148 149 150 160 158 161 -- 160 158 159 -- 170 169 -- -- 170 168 -- ,, -- 180 179 -- -- 180 179 -- -- 190 190 -- -- 190 189 -- -- 200 200 -- -- 210 211 -- -- 200 199 -- -- 220 221 -- -- 210 209 -- -- 230 -- -- -- 220 219 -- -- 240 -- -- -- 230 230 -- -- 250 -- -- -- 240 240 -- -- RESTRICTED 79 RESTRICTED DESCENT TO THE LANDING AREA The B-24 is built for long missions at high alti tudes. Just as in climbing or cruising, the de scent from altitude can be sloppy or skillful depending on the knowledge and foresight of the pilot. Normal Cruising Descent It saves time, fuel and maintains engine per formance to plan your descent ahead. Two fac tors govern a normal descent: distance from the landing area, and desired rate of descent. WRONG 80 In a normal cruising descent the object is to come down at the rate of approximately 200 feet a minute, using normal cruising power set tings, so that you will arrive at an altitude 500 to 1000 feet above traffic as you near the landing area. It is poor planning and wastes fuel to arrive above the field 6000 to 10,000 feet high and then chop power and come down like an elevator. You waste time over the field and cool the engines too rapidly. Good Procedure 1. Plan your descent. To come down 10,000 feet at 200 feet a minute would require 50 minutes. In that case you would start your descent about an hour out from the field. From 20,000 feet you would start descending 1 hour and 40 minutes out. 2. Lower the nose to establish the desired rate of descent. It isn't advisable to exceed 200 miles an hour. 3. Trim to maintain a steady, constant rate of descent. To increase the rate of descent, re duce power. This avoids building up excessive airspeed. With this procedure you are getting greater efficiency from fuel, saving time, and placing minimum strain on the airplane. RIGHT RES T,R IC TED Reminders 1. Oxygen. Stay on oxygen until you get be low 10,000 feet. 2. Booster Pumps. Turn off below 10,000 feet to prevent overheating and to increase their life. 3. Cowl Flaps. The increased airspeed will tend to lower the cylinder-head temperatures so you should be able to close cowl flaps if they were open during cruising. 4. lntercooler Shutters~ Make sure they are open. (See Carburetor Icing.) 5. Manifold Pressure. You may want to re duce power when descending. In a cruising descent, however, you would maintain a con stant manifold pressure during the descent. If equipped with manually operated turbos and if you have some boost on, it will be necessary to slightly advance turbo controls to maintain manifold pressure while descending until you arrive at an altitude where your internal blower will provide sufficient manifold pressure. At this point, turbos may be pulled all the way off. After that, you'll get a rise in manifold pressure as altitude decreases · and will control it by re duction of the throttles. If equipped with electronic turbo controls, the manifold pressure will be automatically maintained down to an altitude where increase in atmospheric pressure allows internal blower to provide sufficient manifold pressure. At this RESTRICTED point turbo control may be dialed back to zero and power controlled from then on by throttles. 6. Airway Traffic Control Rules. Keep them in mind during your descent. I Quick Descent Without Exceeding Airspeed When it is necessary to make a quick descent, don't point the nose down and dive at excessive airspeeds. A good method is to reduce manifold pressure to 18" or 20" and bring the indicated airspeed down to 160 mph before lowering the nose. Don't lower the nose before you have dis sipated airspeed or the inertia of the B-24 will keep you moving at high forward speed. Hold approximately 160 mph. If you want a faster rate of descent, maintain this airspeed and further reduce power. For a slower r~te of descent, increase power and maintain the same airspeed. Control your air speed by raising or lowering the nose. Trim to maintain attitude with ease. This gives you a descent controlled by power which will prove valuable in instrument approaches. It gives you lower forward speed, better control, reduces the turning radius and relieves control pres sures. Cold: In cold weather, after you reduce mani fold pressure, increase rpm to approximately 2400. This will keep the engines warm. Warning: Never make a long power-off de scent. This cools the engines too quickly and may result in turbo warping, or in possible en gine failure when you resume power. QUICK DESCENT WITHOUT EXCEEDING AIRSPEED RESTRICTED 81 RESTRICTED Approaching the· Landing Area When your. descent is completed and you are in the vicinity of the landing area, restore nor mal rpm and manifold pressure unless you are going directly into th~ traffic pattern. Notify the tower of your position and obtain altimeter setting and landing instructions. Strange Fields When clearing for strange fields you, of course, ascertain in advance that runways are of suit able length and condition to accommodate a B-24, and that you can obtain the type of fuel and service necessary. However, weather or emergencies may force a change of flight plan to a strange field. Check carefully with the tower before you land as to the length of run ways and the type of surface. A difference in the surface alone can lengthen your landing roll as much as 1000 feet (see Landing Table). It may be better to ask permission to use a run way that is quartering or crosswind rather than a shorter runway into the wind. At a strange field it is a good idea to fly over the field 500 feet above traffic to look it over and note ob structions. TABLE OF DISTANCES This table is useful both for reference and com parisons. Figures used are average based on no wind and standard temperatures. Example: To land a 50,000-lb. airplane on a hard surface runway with a field elevation of 3000 feet over a 50-foot obstacle, you should have a ground roll of 2610 feet and a total distance of 3140 feet between the obstacle and the end of the ground roll, with moderate braking from point of contact. LANDING DISTANCE (In Feet) B-24, D, E, G, H, & J HARD DRY SURFACE Gross At Sea Level At 3000 Feet At 6000 Feet Weight To Clear Ground To Clear Ground To Clear Ground in Lb. 50' Obi. Roll 50' Obi, Roll 50' Obi. Roll 40,000 2365 1885 2640 2250 2960 2470 50,000 2940 2410 3140 2610 3380 2850 FIRM DRY SOD Gross At Sea Level At 3000 Feet At 6000 Feet Weight To Clear Ground To Clear Ground To Clear Ground in Lb. 50' Obi. Roll 50' Obj. Roll 50' Obj. Roll 40,000 3300 2820 3620 3140 3940 3460 50,000 3920 3490 4240 3700 4560 4040 NOTE: For ground temperatures above 35° C (95° F), increase approach IAS 10% and allow 20% increase in ground roll. 82 RESTRICTED Comparison: It requires 500 to 600 feet more ground run at a 6000-foot field to land the same weight airplane on the same kind of surface. Everything else being equal, you may need as much as 1200 feet more ground roll on sod than on concrete. A difference of 10,000 lb. in weight alone can increase your ground roll as much as 400 to 600 feet. These are average figures based on no wind and will vary with wind and air density. However, they show the RESTRICTED importance of considering every factor before deciding to try to land at a strange field. Caution: Just because you or somebody else got into a field last week doesn't mean you can do it today. How much did the airplane weigh, what was the direction and velocity of the wind; and what was the air density compared to conditions today? One serious variation can make hundreds of feet of difference in distance required. LANDING CHECKS AND TECHNIQUES Consistently good landings in a B-24 require a combination of good judgment, good tech nique and good timing. Although there are quite a few things to do on a landing, you can time your cockpit operations so that you are free at the right moments to concentrate on flying the airplane. Bear down on your technique and keep it sharp. When you get your own plane and crew, RESTRICTED you'll want to grease every landing to keep the old bus in good shape for the next flight. The key to good landings regardless of the weight of the airplane is "control with power." A heavy airplane is not a floating or gliding type. Power takes you off and it's the proper use of power that will let you down easy at reasonable speed. Don't forget that! It applies to every type of B-24 landing. 83 RESTRICTED Location of Downwind Leg Establish your downwind leg 1 to 3 miles out from and parallel to the landing runway. Fly a reciprocal gyro heading. In strong winds it is usually desirable to set the downwind leg closer to the field; this will shorten the base leg and prevent excessive drift. BEFORE LANDING Amplified Checklist Reduce your indicated airspeed to 160 mph as you enter traffic. Start your before-landing check early enough to complete it by the time you are opposite the tower on your downwind leg. 1. Copilot: "ALTIMETER SETTING?" Before you enter traffic, copilot calls the tower for altimeter setting and landing in structions. Pilot: "Altimeter set and landing instructions received!" *2. Copilot: "CREW TO STATIONS?" Engineer checks that the nose section is clear of passengers and crew. He also directs that the ball turret and trailing antenna be re tracted. Engineer: "Crew in landing positions!" *3. Copilot: "AUXILIARY HYDRAULIC PUMP?" Engineer turns it on and signals "On." He continues back to the waist to check the main gear down and locked when it comes down. IN'BD BRAKE PRESSURE OUT'BD BRAKE PRESSURE *4. Copilot: "BRAKE PRESSURE AND PARKING BRAKE?" Pilot presses pedals, ~otes pressure, · and checks parking brake handle in "OFF" posi tion. Pilot: "Brake pressure checked and park ing brake off!" 5. Copilot: "AUTOMATIC PILOT?" Pilot checks all switches "OFF." Pilot: "Automatic pilot off." *6. Copilot: "GEAR?" Copilot puts the handle in the up position briefly, to eliminate any load on the gear locks, then puts it down at the pilot's direc tion, at a speed no gr~ater than 160 mph. When the gear comes down it usually re duces airspeed about 5 mph. Copilot: "Gear down!" *ITEMS WITH ASTERISK FOR SUBSEQUENT LANDINGS. 84 R E_S TR IC TED *7. ~opilot: "MIXTURES?" Copilot (at the direction of pilot) puts them in "AUTO-RICH" positions. Copilot: "Mixtures in auto-rich!" *8. Copilot: "PROPELLERS?" Copilot increases rpm to 2400 to permit greater flexibility of power range if required. Copilot: "2400 rpm!" Increase in rpm will cause a drop in mani fold pressure. Pilot should be ready to in crease throttles, as manifold pressure drops, to maintain power. INTERCOOLER INTERCOOLER SHUTTERS SHUTTERS ~ ~ p.. ~ ilil fc) "" ., .. , , .. ~ 9. Copilot: "INTERCOOLERS?" Copilot checks them open. Copilot: "Intercoolers open!" ,- . ~,~~-- ClOSE __ ClO,l _ tl{)St CLOS! *10. Copilot: "COWL FLAPS?" Copilot checks them for required position. Copilot: "Cowl flaps closed ( or as re quired)!" RESTRICTED BOOSTER PUMPS BOOSTER PUMPS N0.1 N0.2 N0.3. N0.4 Q ~ ~ fdJ ON ON ON ON tttt ~~U)fj) *11. Copilot: "BOOSTER PUMPS?" Copilot turns them all on to assure adequate fuel pressure during landing. Copilot: "Booster pumps on!" 12. Copilot: "WING DE-ICERS?" Copilot checks to make sure they are off. Never land with de-icers on! (See note on exhaust heat anti-icing.) Copilot: "De-icers off!" *13. Copilot: "WHEELS?" Pilot and copilot look out to see if they each have a wheel, Pilot: "Wheel left!"; Copilot: "Wheel right!" Pilot checks and reports, ",Light on, handle in neutral." Engineer: "Gear down and locked!" Warning Horn: On final approach, when throttles are retarded to 15" manifold pres- *ITEMS WITH ASTERISK FOR SUBSEQUENT LANDINGS. RESTRICTED 85 RESTRICTED sure or less, the horn will blow to warn you the gear is not fully down or not locked. But remember that some of the later series air craft do not have horns. 14. Copilot: "BALL TURRET AND TRAILING ANTENNA?'' After the engineer has checked the main gear through the waist gun windows, he proceeds forward to check the ball turret and trailing antenna to be sure they are retracted and the nose gear down and locked. Note: Be· sure your engineer knows how to check gears locked. Engineer: "Ball turret and trailing antenna retracted!" • ' ' *15. Copilot: "WING FLAPS?" Copilot lowers them 10 °. This increases drag very little at 150 mph but increases lift ma terially and gives the plane a more level attitude, better visibility and a lower stalling speed. Copilot: "10° of flaps!" Airspeed: Be sure your airspeed is 155 mph or less before lowering flaps. LOOK AROUND! Before-landing check should be completed by the time you pass the tower on the downwind leg to leave you free to get ready for the turn on the base leg. Get on the Step Get up on the step just as soon as your wing flaps are down 10 °. Remember: Control air speed with attitude and control ascent and descent with power. If airspeed starts to drop, lower the nose until you are holding the de sired airspeed and ease on more power to main tain your desired altitude. Don't jockey your attitude and power so that one correction throws the other off. If the airplane is mushing with nose high and you add power, it will keep right on mushing with only slow gain in air speed. To regain airspeed and eliminate the mushing effect with the least possible delay, the nose should be lowered slightly as. the power is added. Time Your Distance Out You are flying a reciprocal gyro heading paral lel to the landing runway. As you pass a point opposite the end of the runway, start timing yourself. Usually you will fly 20 to 30 seconds and then start a standard rate ( one needle width) turn into your base leg. The turn will carry you about ¾ mile farther out from end of the runway this will put your base leg ap proximately 2¾ miles from the edge of the field. Your heading and turns are controlled ........ ._TIME YOUR .. ._. DISTANCE OUT ., ,, ,, ~ COMPLETE THE CHECKLIST ,, OPPOSITE TOWER , , ,, GROUND TRACK , * ITEMS WITH ASTERISK FOR SUBSEQUENT LANDINGS. 86 RESTRICTED entirely with reference to instruments. Watch your time, and turn on your base leg to make good a gyro heading perpendicular to the land ing runway. Base Leg If you have followed approved procedure, you will be free on the base leg to fly your gyro heading, observe traffic ahead, and look over the approaches to the landing strip. This gives you a chance to judge your distance out from the end of the runway in relation to your alti tude. The success or failure of a landing de pends largely on a good entry into your final approach. Turning On Final Approach When to start your turn on final approach is important. The common tendency is to wait too long. Lead your standard-rate turn, approxi mately ¾ of a mile. Then your rollout will bring you into final approach in line with the runway. Half Flaps: Pilot calls for half flaps just before starting the turn into final approach, and copilot lowers them to 20 ° position. Power Reductions: As the flaps come do'Yn, pilot reduces his power. Pilot should hold a level turn until 20° flaps and reduced p9wer bring airspeed down to 135 mph. Line Up With the Runway Be sure you are lined up with the runway. If not, rudder over at once before you get too close to the field. You may roll out to the right or left of the runway and you can usually cor rect this with rudder and little or no bank if you start far enough back. FINAL APPROACH Amplified Checklist As you roll out of your turn lined up with the runway, start your checklist procedure. Warning: Be sure your feet are flat on the rudder pedals and down off the brakes. It takes very little brake pressure to blow your tires when the wheels touch. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED / ,/ / ···-----------·- RIGHT 1. Copilot: "PROPELLERS?" Pilot has reduced power below 25" manifold pressure and now calls for high rpm. Copilot sets propellers in high rpm. Copilot: "High rpm!" 2. Copilot: "SUPERCHARGERS?" Pilot sets superchargers at takeoff manifold pressure so that full power will be available if needed. Pilot: "Superchargers set and locked." 3. Copilot: "FULL FLAPS?" Pilot calls for full flaps (airspeed 135 mph) and copilot lowers them. This will bring the airspeed down to 125 to 130 mph for the glide. Copilot: "Full flaps down!" 4. Copilot: "AIRSPEED." Copilot calls out airspeed every few seconds throughout landing to assist pilot in main taining proper attitude. 87 RESTRICTED Make Good a Point Pick a point about 10 feet short of the runway and line it up with a rivet or reference point on the nose. You are making good this point in your descent if you keep it lined up with the reference point on the airplane. If the point on the ground drops below your reference line, you are overshooting it; if the point moves above the refere~ce line you are undershooting it. Don't try to judge your flight path by a projection of your longitudinal axis. Airspeed: Maintain 125 to 130 mph in your glide. With full flaps down you can control your descent with power. A good, normal rate of descent is 500 feet a minute at 15" to 18" of manifold pressure. If undershooting, increase power to cut your rate of descent; if overshoot ing, decrease power to increase your rate of descent. In either case, maintain a constant ap proach airspeed. Flare-Out: Start your flare-out high enough, about 150 feet up. It takes time to change the direction of a 4-engine bomber. Your airspeed will decrease gradually as you gradually raise the nose and reduce power. Coordination of Power and Attitude Your flare-out and reduction of power should be perfectly coordinated. If too high, reduce power; don't steepen your gliding angle and buiild up excessive airspeed. If you are coming in just right, power should be blended off in almost perfect coordination with your round out. If you are flaring out short, let your power lag behind the flare-out to carry you farther in; if you are too high, bring power off a little faster to ease the airplane to the ground more quickly. Properly executed, the flare-out will bring the airplane in just above the runway surface at 105 to 110 mph in a definitely nose up attitude, sinking at a rate that will grease it into the runway. Power keeps down your rate of descent and prevents the airplane from hitting the runway with a heavy jolt. Undershooting: There is a tendency to under shoot because in a normal landing the flight path is much steeper than it seems. Although the nose may be pointed well down the run way, the airplane may be sinking toward a point short of the runway. Pick a point to make good and establish a reference line by which to judge your glide path. Dropping In: The B-24 is not a glider. Don't make the mistake of chopping off all power in the flare-out before your airplane is on the concrete. Let down to the runway with smooth, gradual reduction of power. Otherwise the heavy drag of wings, flaps, and windmilling propellers will cause a sudden loss of airspeed and will drop you in. Flying Onto the Concrete: What you want is power control, not excessive airspeed. If you ~ ~ ... , +••···········~- ········~_. END OF RUNWAY♦ ' 88 RESTRICTED come in too fast, you'll have to fly onto the concrete with the nose gear as low as the main gear to get the airplane to stay on the runway. Then, with power off, if you try to kill speed by bringing the nose up, you will take off again, rapidly lose airspeed, stall and drop in from several feet above the ground. Get the nose up and airspeed down during the flare-out, and control your sink with power. Use correct airspeed, attitude and power con trol and you've got a good landing. Landing Roll Hold the nose up with the elevators and main tain directional control with the rudders. In a nose-high attitude the drag of the wings and flaps reduces speed rapidly. Keep the nose high until it tends to want to come down-usually at 70 to 75 mph. Then lower the nosewheel smoothly to the runway. When the nosewheel is solidly on the ground ( and not before), raise your feet into braking position. ~ --····· ... ~ RESTRICTED RESTRICTED Brakes Feel out the brakes early so you will know what to expect of them. If you have plenty of room, use it and save your brakes, but remem ber it is better to use brakes too early than too late. Get the airplane slowed down with area sonable amount of room to spare. Use br.akes progressively. Apply them and then release them. Don't sock them on and leave them. And don't leave the weight of your toes on the brakes when not applying them, because the heat ·generated may crack a drum or burst an expander tube. Clear the Runway Clear the runway promptly. The pilot behind you may have lost his hydraulic brake pressure and not know it, or may need all the runway. CROSSWIND LANDINGS Crosswind landings in a Liberator present the same problem as in other aircraft except that poor technique produces more serious conse quences. The object is to bring the airplane onto the runway with zero drift. Any drift will place a heavy side load on the gear and can re sult in blown tires or landing gear failure. In a crosswind landing, ·fly the pattern just the same as in a normal landing. Line up with your runway on final approach and note your drift. There are 2 approved methods of correct- -.. - ' ~- .• -~ · -·· • 89 RESTRICTED COMBINATION SLIP AND ~ - .~ ing for drift, namely: Full crab with wings level, or combination of crab with the upwind wing slightly down. Full Crab Correction 1. Hold your wings level and head the air plane sufficiently into the wind with rudder to fly a ground track directly down the center of the runway path. 2. Approach ~he end of the runway an:d flare out in the usual manner. Just before you touch the ground, use rudder to head the nose down the center of the runway. 3. Timing is the thing. If you straighten the crab too soon, you'll start to drift 'before you touch the runway. If you delay too long, you'll hit the runway while still in a crab. The mo ment you touch the runway is the crucial one. 4. Remember that when you rudder out of 90 the crab you are moving the upwind wing rapidly forward, tending to increase its lift, so it will require a little opposite aileron to hold the wings level. It requires perfect timing to execute this type of crosswind landing properly because of the large correction necessary and slow response of the airplane to rudder con trol. Combination Method 1. Here you correct drift by crabbing and dropping the upwind wing slightly to fly a track in line with the runway. 2. Here's what actually happens. You rudder into the crab, and lower the wing in a co ordinated movement and at the same time lower the nose slightly and relax rudder pres sure. The result is a crab and a mild slip into the wind. For that reason it is important not to RESTRICTED drop the wing too much because you lose lift rapidly in an uncoordinated bank. Again be sure your airplane is not drifting as you contact the runway. Usually you can correct the crab and lift the wing almost en tirely with rudder, because the forward move ment of the upwind wing as it swings out of the crab will lift it. Use no more ailerons than necessary, because ailerons create burble at low flying speeds. Warning: If you see you have taken out the crab too soon and are starting to drift, you have 2 choices: Apply enough power to keep the air plane off the runway and re-establish a non drifting ground track; or; if that is not possible, apply full power smoothly to go around and try again. Don't take a chance on hitting the run way while you are drifting sideways. The com bination type of crosswind landing is most com monly used. Crosswind Landing Roll In either the full crab or combination methods it is a good idea to touch the ground with the nose slightly lower than normal but with the nosewheel definitely clear of the concrete. Bring the nosewheel firmly to the ground as soon as possible. Tricycle Gear Fights a Groundloop The inherent directional stability of the tricycle landing gear overcomes the weathervaning effect of the crosswind on the airplane. Reason: The center of gravity is between the main gear and the nose gear. The force of inertia (or mov ing weight) is straight ahead, down the center of the runway, and tends to pull the nose wheel back to this line if it starts to veer. Thus inertia fights against a groundloop. In conven tional airplanes with the center of gravity aft of the main gear, inertia tends to · swing the tail around and aggravate a groundloop. You can hold the plane straight ahead with rudder control until speed drops down to 70 or RESTRICTED RESTRICTED 75 mph. As you lose rudder control, a little extra throttle on the upwind outboard engine or slight brake pressure on the· clownwind side will hold the plane straight on the runway. Keep flying the airplane. A successful cross wind landing is not completed until the air plane is safely parked on the hangar line. _ CROSSWIND TAXIING When taxiing in a high crosswind, it is difficult to hold rudder neutral. In that case, it will save wear and tear on yourself and the copilot to relock controls before starting to taxi. If so, be sure · you unlock them before takeoff. Usually the copilot can hold controls in neutral. On the average taxi strip you can keep the airplane down the center of the runway in a crosswind by proper manipulation of throttles. When the airplane starts to nose into the wind, apply power smoothly on the upwind outboard engine long enough so the nose will swing past the center line; then pull the throttle off. Mean while ;hold other throttles back. Then let the airplane gradually nose back to the center of the runway and repeat. This produces an S-ing track . but permits control without brakes and without building up excessive speed. Another method is to carry enough constant power on the upwind side to counteract the crosswind. However, this tends to build up ex cessive speed and requires more frequent use of brakes. In a severe crosswind or on a narrow taxi strip, it may be necessary to use the downwind brake to hold a straight-ahead path. If so, apply the brake and release it, apply and release. There is danger of destructive heat if you main tain a steady pressure. 91 RESTRICTED 92 RESTRICTED GO-A ROI ND Be ready, on every landing, to go around if necessary. Without warning, it may be neces sary for the tower to send you around again because of an accident on the runway, mis understanding of traffic instructions by another pilot, or other emergency. You may choose to go around because you find yourself too close behind another airplane, because you are over shooting or have made a bad landing. Don't wait too long. The minute you see the need, decide to go around. If you aren't on the ground in the first % of the runway, call for the go around procedure. Notify your copilot so he knows immediately what you intend to do. Amplified Checklist 1. Copilot: "POWER." As he announces the go-around procedure, the pilot opens throttles to takeoff manifold pressure 'and re-trims airplane. Avoid Jamming: Don't stiff-arm the throttles. Advance power smoothly and rapidly but no faster than propellers can take it. If you jam power on too fast, it speeds up blades faster RESTRICTED RESTRICTED than p~opeller governors can change pitch so that there is danger of a runaway propeller. Trimming: Re-trim elevators for climb as you increase power. You were trimmed for landing and for reduced power. Increased power will make the airplane tail-heavy until re-trimmed. Climb: You are trying to build up airspeed with full flaps down, so hold a near level-flight attitude with very shallow climb. 120~ 2. Copilot: "AIRSPEED." Copilot watches the airspeed and calls it out . to the pilot every few seconds. 3. Copilot: "WING FLAPS." After the airplane has reached a safe speed (approximately 120 mph) copilot when di- 93 RESTRICTED rected by the pilot, brings the flaps up to 20° and returns flap handle to neutral. Simul taneously the pilot raises the nose enough to maintain lift and altitude. Then he will ex perience no sink and airspeed will rapidly build up to 135 mph. Copilot: "Wing flaps at 20° ." Errors: Stop at half flaps! Don't be distracted and bring flaps all the way up yet. Be sure you have 120 mph airspeed before calling for ½ flaps and don't let the plane sink while flaps are coming up. Raise the nose enough to maintain altitude without reducing air speed. 4. Copilot: "WHEELS COMING UP." As soon as the flaps are up to 20°, the copilot will reach over and raise the wheels upon command from the pilot. Don't attempt to raise the wheels until you return the flap handle to neutral. The hydraulic system is designed to perform only one major opera tion at a time. Error: Don't pull gear up before bringing the flaps to 20° or you'll have to wait the 25 to 30 seconds it takes the gear to retract before you can raise the flaps. Then you would have the drag of full flaps when you could be gaining forward speed and climbing. Thirty seconds is a long time at this point. Check After you have a safe airspeed, check tempera- · tures and put cowl flaps at trail, if closed. Don't change cowl flaps until you have 135 mph. END OF LANDING ROLL 1. Copilot: "SUPERCHARGERS?" Pilot closes them while taxiing. ' Pilot: "Superchargers off." 2. Copilot: "BOOSTER PUMPS?" Copilot switches them off. Copilot: "Booster pumps off." 94 RESTRICTED 3. Copilot: "GENERATORS?" Engineer checks them in "OFF" position. Engineer: "Generators off." 4. Copilot: "WING FLAPS?" Copilot raises flaps. Copilot: "Wing flaps up." 5. Copilot: "COWL FLAPS?" Copilot opens them fully. Copilot: "Cowl flaps open." 6. Copilot: "AUXILIARY POWER UNIT?" Engineer turns this unit on during taxiing because generators will not charge batteries when engines produce less than 1700 rpm. Engineer: "Auxiliary power unit on." 7. Copilot: "BRAKE PRESSURE?" Copilot checks brake pressure and continues to check it frequently until the airplane is parked. If at any time brake pressure falls belo~ 800 lb., pilot will bring the airplane to a stop and not move it again until brake pres sure is re-established or until engineering personnel come to tow the airplane in. TAXIING IN As ·soon as your landing roll is completed, clear the runway and keep moving, because other aircraft may also want to clear immediately. At strange fields ask the tower for taxiing in formation. Don't proceed blindly. Tower per sonnel are there to help you. Ask for clearance before crossing runways. Some fields use 2 run ways at the same time. Don't forget to post an observer. PARKING THE AIRPLANE There isn't any hurry. Wait for directions if not fully familiar with the parking area. Get a ground man out in front and one on each wing tip. Remember that you are the airplane com mander, and if the ground crew rams you into another airplane or tries to put you into a space that's too small, you'll get the blame. If in doubt as to clearance, stop the airplane in its tracks. RESTRICTED Don't let a ground-crew man mess up your airplane. Let them put it away with a tug. After completing the turn into the parking space, roll at least 5 feet forward to avoid park ing with the nosewheel at an angle. Caution: When the airplane ~s parked don'~ let any of the crew or passengers leave until the engines are stopped. Issue special instruc tions to this effect if anyone has been ill during the flight. Never let anyone walk through the propellers at any time. TO SECURE THE AIRPLANE Amplified Checklist 1. Copilot: "ENGINES." Pilot opens throttles until propellers reach 1000 rpm. Copilot puts mixture controls in "IDLE CUT-OFF"; then pilot opens throttles slowly, leaving them fully open. Copilot: "Mixh~res in idle cut-off." Pilot: "Throttles fully open." 2. Copilot: "SWITCHES." Copilot closes all switches after propellers have stopped, first magnetos and radio; then, when autosyn instruments such as oil, fuel, etc., have returned to neutral, he turns off AC power, lights, battery selectors and main line. Don't cut battery selectors and main line until all electrical switches are "OFF." Copilot: "Switches off." 3. Copilot: "WHEEL CHOCKS?" Pilot checks left wheel chock and copilot checks right wheel chock in place so brakes may be released, because heat continues to expand the expander tubes. Brakes should be left unlocked until they are cooled off and the crew chief locks them later. Pil<,t: "Wheel chock in place left." Copilot: "Wheel chock in place right." 4. Copilot: "GEAR HANDLE?" Copilot puts landing gear handle down so that any hydraulic expansion will tend to close the gear lock rather than to open it. Copilot: "Gear handle down." RESTRICTED RESTRICTED 5. Copilot: "FLIGHT CONTROLS." Copilot locks flight controls while pilot loosens the locking strap. Use the following sequence for locking controls: First lock rud der by holding rudder near neutral and slow ly moving either way while applying slight tension to the locking handle. Next lock the elevators by moving the wheel to the white line and then slowly back and forth until the locking pin drops in; lock ailerons by moving wheel slightly from side to side until the aileron pin drops in. Do not force the locking handle. Then place the hook in the handle and draw the strap up. Fill out Form 1 and lA before leaving the airplane and give the engineer full instructions as to servicing. Parking at Strange Fields Airplane and crew are the airplane command er's responsibility. You can delegate duties but you cannot delegate responsibility. You must arrange · for proper servicing, securing and mooring of the airplane. The airplane should be locked and a guard should be posted if there is not regular guard protection, even if you have to hire a civil guard. Think of your crew's comfort before you think of your own. See that they have a place to eat . and sleep; check transportation; arrange for passes to get them in and out of the field, and notify them as to probable takeoff time so they will know when to have the airplane ready. Fair-minded consideration for your crew will build loyalty and crew spirit. 95 • r • RESTRIC:JED POWER-OFF APPROACH A power-off approach proves useful when you see that you are coming in too high or when in combat, for instance-you find it necessary to make a quick descent over high trees or other obstructions on to a short runway that begins fairly close to the obstruction. Your approach is normal in all respects ex cept that you pull in toward the field under power, high enough to make certain you will clear the obstacle when you start your glide. Glide From a relatively high position in relation to the end of the runway, retard throttles com pletely and lower the nose to maintain an air speed of 125 mph. This will bring you down at a relatively steep angle of glide. Trim to ease fore and aft pressure but avoid over-trimming, or the airplane will have a strong nose-high tendency when you advance throttles. Flare-out Start your flare-out 100 to 150 feet above the ground and at the same time increase throttles to 12" to 14" of manifold pressure to stop the descent and change the direction from down to forward. Remember, you must overcome the tendency of a heavy body to continue moving in the same direction. Coordinate power with your flare-out, first building up power to change 96 the attitude and direction of the airplane and then, as you near contact with the runway, re duce power to hold forward speed down to 105 to 110 mph. Don't completely reduce power until you make contact with the runway. Although you are making a power-off ap proach, you are making a power-controlled landing. Don't try this without power to aid in your flare-out, or you'll keep right on sinking. EMERGENCY SHORT-FIELD LANDINGS Never land a B-24 on a short runway except in absolute emergencies. However, it is important to know the proper technique if an unexpected emergency arises. In combat anything can hap pen and often does. Procedure 1. Execute downwind and base leg in the normal manner. 2. Come in toward the field in a normal man ner but shoot for a point seyeral hundred feet short of the runway. RESTRICTED 3. Flare out as if you were going to land short of the field but add power as you increase your angle of attack so that the airplane is dragging in 50 or 60 feet up at 105 to 110 mph. Control sink by addition or reduction of power. 4. Reduce power to lower the airplane in a nose-high attitude at a point as near the end of the runway as possible. Pull power completely off as soon as wheels touch, but not before. Remember that the only thing which keeps you flying is the thrust from your propellers. Error: Don't build up airspeed by lowering the nose, or the airplane will tend to have ex cessive forward speed and float, using up too much runway. This defeats the purpose of a short-field landing. The object is to· reduce for ward speed but maintain control with power. 5. The moment the main gear is on the con crete get the nosewheel down smoothly but quickly and hold positive forward pressure on the wheel to depress the oleo strut fully so braking won't injure the nose gear assembly. There is risk of excessive strain on the nose wheel, so build up forward wheel pressure smoothly and gradually. . 6. Immediately start to feel out the brakes, and then use them strongly and intermittently -not continuously unless absolutely necessary. GET NOSEGEAR DOWN USE BRAKES STRONGLY SMOOTHLY BUT QUICKLY AND INTERMITTENTLY RESTRICTED RESTRICTED Advantages This technique brings the airplane to the con crete as near the end of the runway as possi ble, at minimum forward speed, and permits the use of brakes quickly. It helps you get maximum benefit from every inch of runway. Errors: If overshooting, go around and· come in for another try. If you have slowed down too much to have room to go around, but are run ning off the end of the runway because the brakes won't hold, you'll have to use quick judgment of what is best to do. Here are 2 possible courses of action: 1. As you roll from the end of the runway, get off the brakes and pull as much weight as possible off the nosewheel. Otherwise it may dig into soft dirt and collapse. 2. If there are obstructions or a drop-off ahead, you may choose to bear down hard on one brake and use a little opposite power to groundloop the airplane. Don't get yourself in a spot where you have to make a choice of this kind. Parachute Brakes If you ever have to land on a short runway without brakes or flaps, a trick devised in com bat theaters may come in handy. Several times B-24's have been landed safely with parachutes slung from the waist gun mounts to provide drag. The procedure has varied, but the gen eral method is to fasten the parachute harness to the gun mounts. As soon as the airplane touches down, the pilot signals crew mem- bers-by interphone or by a pre-arranged alarm bell signal-to pull the ripcords. The point of 97 RESTRICTED drag is far enough aft so that you don't need to worry about a groundloop even if one para chute fails to open, but some pilots have had two parachutes fastened on each side, the second being used if the first doesn't open. Still another variation calls for two parachutes on each side to be opened simultaneously. It's all improvisation, so work out whatever pro cedure seems best; better still, find some one who has seen it done and learn from him. LOW VISIBILITY OR CLOSE-IN APPROACH This approach may be used in case it· is neces sary to land in a condition of low visibility when the normal traffic pattern would carry you out of sight of the field, when there are no directional radio aids to aid you in making an instrument approach, or in case of radio failure. Also see Low Visibility Approach in T.O. 30- lO0B-1. Procedure 1. Approach the field in the direction you are going to land at traffic altitude or as high . as visibility will permit. I l MINUTE 98 2. Check in with the tower, know the exact conditions regarding other traffic, and ~heck your knowledge of the location and altitudes of all obstructions in the vicinity of the field. Com plete your checklist, get your gear down and checked, and have an airspeed of 150 mph by the time you reach the field. 3. Fly upwind along the landing runway to the opposite end. 4. Lower the flaps to 20° and reduce airspeed to 135 mph to 140 mph and execute a one minute timed turn. 5. Fly back on the reciprocal heading and, opposite the approach end of the runway, start timing and fly out for 15 seconds. 6. Reduce power at the-end of 15 seconds and start a I-minute timed turn, descending at the rate of 200 to 500 feet a minute depending upon your altitude. Power reduction will be in pro portion to desired rate of descent. Start your final approach checklist halfway through the turn to obtain proper settings of propellers, superchargers, etc. 7. Roll out in line with runway, lower full flaps, and reduce power as necessary. 8. Procedures are the same as a normal land ing in all other respects. 1 MINUTE TIMED TURN ---- -- RESTRICTED FORCED LANDINGS Of necessity, the problem of forced landings not on airports will vary with every situation, and procedure must be left to the judgment and resourcefulness of the pilot. Following are practical suggesti9ns: 1. Radio your position to the nearest facility at the first indication of an emergency. 2. Always drop bombs over uninhabited areas or in enemy territory, and secure loose equipment which might cause injury. 3. Always warn the crew immediately of the emergency by interphone so they will have time to get ready to bail out or to take stations and get braced for a crash landing. 4. Have the engineer turn off fuel sight gage valves and wing compartment drain line valves located in forward bomb bay compartment on lower wing surface near the booster pumps. 5. Bleed the oxygen system if there is time. 6. Retract the ball turret. 7. Have fire extinguishers and first-aid kits handy to facilitate removal after landing. 8. Do not turn auxiliary hydraulic pump on if No. 3 engine is operating. If No. 3 is not oper ating, use auxiliary hydraulic pump to lower gear and flaps and charge brake accumulators. Then turn it off before contact to reduce fire hazard in case the wing tanks are fractured and leak gas into bomb bays, in vicinity of the open brush motor. 9. Bail out in preference to making a forced landing at night. Positions For Bracing Flight Deck: Pilot and copilot with safety belts and shoulder harness securely fastened. Others RESTRICTED on flight deck lying down with feet · braced against step as much out of the way of the turret as possible. Half Deck: As many men as possible squeezed on half deck, feet braced against forward part , of ship. Remaining men in crash harness or braced near Station 6. To land or Not to lan'd? If you have a choice, don't attempt a forced landing unless you are reasonably certain of success. Over rocky, rough, or excessively soft ter rain, always bail out if altitude permits. It is sometimes possible to make a forced landing on a road or on a long, level, dry, cul tivated field. Procedure After landing 1. Remove fire extinguishers and first-aid kits when leaving airplane. 2. Get out as quickly as possible. 3. Count noses and rescue trapped person nel, check injuries and give fir~ aid if needed. 4. Inspect aircraft for fire hazards. Forbid smoking in vicinity of aircraft. Post guard and send word by nearest telephone in accordance with instructions in your flight envelope. ALWAYS BAIL OUT THE CREW IF ALTITUDE PERMITS On any landing where there is serious danger of over-running a short runway or where other circumstances make the landing hazardous, bail out all the crew except the engineer, co pilot and pilot if altitude permits. Before doing so, make certain that each crew member under stands how to leave the airplane and how to use the parachute. (See Bailout.) It is the posi~ tive duty of the airplane commander to hold ALWAYS LOWER AND LOCK THE LANDING GEAR, IF POSSIBLE, FOR A FORCED LANDING RESTRICTED 99 RESTRICTED ground drills in the airplane on bailout proce dures and emergency bailout signals. Never leave it up to the crew to decide whether they will bail out or not. How to Make a Belly Landing If all emergency procedures fail to lower the gear, then it is necessary to make a belly land ing. Should you land on or off the runway? Ex perience has shown that with heavy bombard ment aircraft such a landing should be made on the runway. The reason is that dirt and sod roll up into balls, fracturing the plane's skin; then the bottom surfaces serve as a scoop. Fear of fire has caused pilots to dislike the idea of belly landings on concrete. If the gas system is intact and not leaking, such fears are largely groundless. Moreover, the airplane will stop as quickly or more quickly on concrete than on ~od. Procedure 1. Bail out all crew members except the en- gineer, copilot and pilot. · 2. At the earliest moment notify the tower of your position, that it may be necessary to make a belly landing on the runway, how much longer you intend to remain aloft and approxi mately where and when crew members will bail out. Pilot and copilot should securely fasten safety belts and shoulder harness to avoid being 100 thrown forward on the wheel on impact and · thus forcing the nose down. Warn the engineer to brace himself in a position clear of the top turret in case it should fall on impact. 3. When you are sure you must make a belly landing, release bombs in "safe" position over uninhabited areas at not less than 500 feet. 4. Have the engineer turn off the fuel sight gage valves and wing compartment drain line valves located in forward bomb bay compart ment on lower wing surface near booster pumps; drain the lines through the bomb bay drain valves. 6. Have the engineer check auxiliary hy draulic pump "OFF." Open the flight deck escape hatch, and also open the waist window hatches to permit easy access to the rear of the airplane after lan_ding. 7. Make a normal approach in all respects. 8. Use a normal flare-out and hold your sink to a minimum with power, contacting the run way at 105 to 110 mph. Brace against the im pact so you won't shove the wheel forward. Bring the control column back as far as possi ble and hold it there. 9. Simultaneously on impact copilot should put all mixture controls in "IDLE CUT-OFF" and turn master switch "OFF." This cuts off all switches, b~tteries, etc. 10. When the airplane stops get everyone out as quickly as possible. Have the engineer bring fire extinguishers along. RESTRICTED NO-FLAP LANDINGS This becomes necessary , if flaps can not I be lowered because of mechanical failure or as a result of enemy fire. The important thing to remember is that no flaps reduce lift greatly and increase the stalling speeds in level flight, in turns, and during fl.are-out. Procedure 1. Maintain an airspeed of 150 to 155 mph approaching the fie1d and in traffic, and use the longest runway wind permits. 2. Make shallow turns because of higher stalling speeds with no flaps. 3. Fly the final approach descent flatter so there is less change of attitude in the flare-out. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED Avoid a steep angle of glide. But don't get so low you have to use excess power and build up too high an airspeed in order to drag in. 4. Hqld an airspeed of 150 mph on final ap proach, reducing to 140 mph (for normal load) during the flare-out. Maintain airspeed 15 to 20 mph faster than known stalling speed for the load carried. 5. Plan contact as near the end of the run way as possible. When you are low over the runw~y, start raising the nose and reducing power very gradually. Carry enough power to keep sink to a minimum, and don't raise the nose to stop sink. Contact the ground at 135 to 140 mph and immediately bring throttles ful.l back. 6. If there is ample runway, raise the nose to slow airplane down. If the runway is short for your speed, immediately lower the nose so that you can start using the brakes. 101 RESTRICTED LANDING WITH ONE MAIN WHEEL UP, OTHER MAIN AND NOSEWHEEL DOWN If this landing is executed properly, there is much less damage to the airplane and chance of injury to personnel than in a belly landing. Know and try all emergency means to lower the main gear. If you have plenty of gas aboard, ask the tower to call an expert to tell you how to get the gear down. If you can't get it down, use this procedure: Procedure 1. Bail out all crew members except the en gineer, copilot and pilot. 2. Choose a runway on which you can groundloop without running into a hangar or parked aircraft, or going over a cliff. 3. Make a normal power approach and trim for a normal landing. 4. Be sure auxiliary hydraulic pump is off after brake accumulators are charged. 5. Land at a speed 5 to 10 mph faster than I usual and use power to keep sink to a mini mum. Grease 'er on. 6. Land with the wing on the side of the faulty gear slightly high, and immediately after contact raise this wing still higher and feather the outboard engine on the bad-gear side to - reduce drag. . 7. As soon as the main gear is solidly on the ground, raise the nose to a high angle of attack to get maximum lift and to reduce speed as rapidly as possible. 8. As lift decreases, the wing on the faulty gear side and the nose gear will tend to drop. Hold the wing up with ailerons as long as possi ble; when the wing starts down and touches, use brake on the good-gear side to stop the groundloop, which will seldom exceed 45 °. Damage is usually limited to the outboard pro peller, wingtip and vertical fin. LANDING WITH NOSEWHEEL DAMAGED OR RETRACTED, OR WITH NO BRAKES ii - ---~•~•v••~------• There are a number of situations in which it will be desirable to hold the nose high through out the landing roll and bring the airplane to a stop resting on the tailskid. Examples: When the nosewheel is damaged or the shimmy damper faulty; when the nosewheel tire is flat; when the nosewheel cannot be extended, or when landing with no brakes. This procedure requires careful load distri bution and precise cooperation from the crew. It is the airplane commander's duty to brief his crew thoroughly on the proper procedure for a landing of this kind. 102 {!a«,tto«, This type of landing is hazardous in a strong crosswind. It is desirable to use the longest runway, but the pilot must use judg ment in balancing the benefits of a long runway against the hazard of landing crosswind. Procedure 1. Hold the airplane in level flight at 150 to 155 mph (160 mph with nose turret) and shift the load so the airplane will fly level with 11/2 ° nose-down trim. Normally this requires 7 men stationed between the No. 6 bulkhea'd and the RESTRICTED waist windows. Advise crew in advance exact ly what they are to do on landing. 2. Get perm1ss1on from the tower for an emergency landing. Request the ~lert crew to stand by and notify tower you will come to a full stop on the runway. 3. On final approach see that crew are all at the predetermined stations in the rear compart ment. Carry out the checklist as usual and trim for a normal landing. 4. Land on the main gear at the slowest safe airspeed, controlling sink with power, as near the approach end of the runway as possible. Keep the nose slightly higher than normal but do not land on the tailskid. 5. Hold throttles all the way back, open cowl flaps, and put inboard mixtures in "IDLE CUT OFF" immediately after landing to get full pro peller braking action. If necessary, use out board engines for directional control or as a last resort for groundlooping if running out of runway. 6. Immediately after contact, raise the nose as high as possible to ease the tailskid down until it is dragging. Trim tail-heavy to hold the tailskid on the ground. 7. The moment the tailskid starts to drag, one crew member will move to the extreme rear of the airplane. Thereafter one additional crew member should move aft for each signal RESTRICTED RESTRICTED on the alarm bell. Five or 6 men should be aft when the landing roll has decreased to approxi mately 20 mph. Send the 6th and 7th men back as the airplane comes to rest. Emphatically tell men that they are to stay in the extreme rear until specifically ordered out. Several landings of this kind have been successfully made, and as soon as the airplane stopped the crew rushed forward, banging the nose into the ground and doing as much damage as a bad landing. In case the nosewheel is extended but you have a flat tire, faulty shimmy damper or no brakes, you can lower the nose by calling one man forward at a time from the rear of the airplane to let the nosewheel settle gently to the ground. TIRE TROUBLE Blown tires seldom occur unless the airplane is handled improperly. Then the great weight of a large airplane and the extreme heat gener ated by improper use of brakes may blow a tire. If this occurs, the inherent directional stability of the tricycle gear is an important aid to the pilot. Following are the best procedures to use in case of a blown tire. Blowout on Takeoff This is usually caused by having the feet up on the brakes during takeoff or braking the wheels too soon after takeoff. Then, if the air plane settles momentarily so that the tires touch, one or both tires may blow out. If a blowout occurs early in the takeoff run and there is room enough, throttle back and stop. Use brakes with caution, or the flat tire will tear apart and throw rubber all around. · Don't let the noise and vibration confuse you. If you are going too fast to stop, continue the takeoff. With an airplane not too heavily loaded 103 RESTRICTED and good airspeed, you may be able to climb satisfactorily with wheels down. In that case, complete the takeoff procedure in the normal manner-but leave the wheels down to avoid danger of their becoming jammed in the gear wells. Keep 5° to 9° of flaps down for addi tional lift. You can fly traffic safely at 150 mph. If you can't make altitude with wheels down, then raise the gear, but be sure the wheels are braked so that loose rubber won't jam in the gear wells. Notify the tower that you are going around for a flat-tire landing. Landing With One Main Gear Tire Blown Repeated successful landings have been made in the B-24 with tires flat and with little or no other damage to the airplane. Procedure 1. Notify the tower that you have a flat tire and that you will make a full-stop landing on th~ runway. 2. If possible, get permission to use a run way with the wind quartering_ from the good tire side. But avoid drift or you'll blow the other tire, too. 3. Cut sink to a minimum. Control it with power. 4. Upon contact, get the nose down as soon as possible, and hold forward pressure on the nosewheel. Th~n the directional stability of the tricycle gear will help hold the airplane straight. 5. As the airplane slows down it will tend to turn more into the blown tire. Use a little power on the flat-tire side with light braking action on the good tire side to maintain a straight-ahead path. 6. Keep the airplane where it stops until the wheel is changed. 104 Note: Avoid using brakes on the flat-tire side; it will tear the •tire up, increase vibration, and won't help in stopping. Landing With 2 Main Gear Tires Blown In this case the procedure is approximately the same as with one tire blown except that you should have the auxiliary hydraulic .pump off before contact and land as directly into the wind as possible. Again lower the nose as soon after contact as possible and push the wheel forward, to get the weight forward on the nose wheel tire and to get the wing at a negative angle of attack. The airplane will vibrate, thump, shake and throw rubber, but you will have good directional control. Stay off the brakes as long as possible. If you must use them, do so. sparingly. For added braking ac tion, put inboard engines in "IDLE CUT-OFF." Blowout As You Land If a tire blows out as you land, stay off the brake on that side. Ease the nosewheel down quickly (but never slam it down) and you should obtain directional control. If necessary, brake slightly on the good-tire side and add a little power on the outboard engine on the fl.at tire side. The usual mistake is to slam on both brakes too soon. This jerks the nose down and rips the flat tire to pieces. The thing to remem ber is that you always obtain greater direc tional control just as soon as you get the nose wheel solidly on the ground. However, in case the flat tire balls up and locks the wheel, it may be necessary to use considerable power and brake to avoid a severe groundloop. Nosewheel Tire Blown See Landing With Nosewheel Damaged or Re tracted or Without Brakes. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED DO YOU KNOW YOUR POWER PLANT? The supercharged power plant of the modern airplane is indeed a complex machine. With automatic devices such as constant speed pro pellers, electronic supercharger controls, and carburetors for controlling fuel-air mixtures, · it is a far cry from the aircraft engine of 20 years ago. In this discussion of its operation, it is essen tial first to consider the power plant as a whole, since when one factor in the intricate system changes, other factors-even those apparently remote-may also be affected. For clarity's sake, the discussion will deal chiefly with the elec tronic turbo-supercharger control, rather than the early type with oil regulated control. To gain a be~ter understanding of the oper ation of a supercharged engine, and thus help clear up the existing confusion about manifold pressure and its influence on engine perform ance, let us first consider the accompanying diagram. It shows the location of the various parts of the power plant which affect manifold pressure during the complete cycle of opera- REST RIC TED tion, and shows how all factors work together to produce the manifold pressure indicated on the instrument panel. The first unit in the cycle is the air filter. This removes dust and fine sand from the air enter ing the power plant, preventing the rapid wear such grit would cause on moving engine parts. A slight drop in pressure results from the pas sage of air through the filter, but when the turbo control is working the turbo compressor rpm is increased to compensate for the drop. At high altitudes, however, you should turn the filters off, or the turbine will reach over speed at a lower altitude than normal. Next is the turbo-driven compressor. The amount of pressure boost it delivers depends upon its rpm and upon inlet pressure. Four factors affect the rpm of this unit: Exhaust pres sure in the turbine nozzle box; exhaust gas temperature; atmospheric pressure and temper ature, and quantity of air flow through the compressor. Leaving the compressor, air passes through 105 -0 0- ,a m "' -t ,a n -t m C CIRCULAR DIAGRAM OF AN EXHAUST DRIVEN SUPERCHARGER ENGINE 1 AIR FILTER IA CARBURETOR AIR SCOOP 18 INTERCOOLER AIR SCOOP 2 TURBO COMPRESSOR 3 INTERCOOLER 4 INTERCOOLER SHUTTERS S CARBURETOR 6 THROTTLE 7 INTERNAL BLOWER B GEAR DRIVE FOR INTERNAL BLOWER 9 INTAKE MANIFOLD 10 PROPELLER GOVERNOR 11 EXHAUST DUCT 12 TURBINE WHEEL 13 WASTE GATE 14 WASTE GATE STOP 15 HEAT BAFFLE 16 WORM GEAR DRIVE 17 FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS 18 EXPANSION JOINT A INCOMING AIR PRESSURE B TURBO OUTPUT PRESSURE C CARBURETOR INLET PRESSURE D MANIFOLD PRESSURE MANIFOLD PRESSURE IS AFFECTED BY THROTTLE POSITION AND ENGINE RPM AS WELL AS TURBO BOOST l i SVOLT 400--- AMPLIFIER MIN JUNCTION BOX D ED • TUCjjOR ATMOSPHERIC AIR COMPRESSED AIR EXHAUST GASES ,a m "' -t ,a n -t m C the intercoo\er. Since this is an integral part of the induction system, a pressure drop occurs here whether the intercooler shutters are open or not. For full power conditions, this drop amounts to approximately l" Hg. The regulator sensing unit, or Pressuretrol, is connected to the induction system between the intercooler and the carburetor. It reacts to the carburetor inlet pressure (CIP), or upper deck pressure. This not the manifold pressure, is the pressure the pilot selects with the turbo boost selector (TBS), which operates through the Pressuretrol to control the waste gate posi tion and produce the required CIP. (On the old type oil regulatE:;d turbos, there is no Pressure trol, and the CIP has no effect on waste gate setting.) Since the regulator reacts to the CIP, it is important that the ducts and joints of the entire system be tight. Remember that altitude in creases the pressure difference between the inside and outside of the system; a leak that is not apparent during ground operation or at low altitude will cause a greater pressure loss at altitude. Leaks will cause excessive "droop" and unstable power, and will make the turbo overspeed control cut in below the normal alti tude. The next unit in the system is the carburetor, where the position of the throttle controls the manifold pressure. When the throttle is at its optimum position ( offering minimum resistance to air flow), the manifold pressure will be at a maximum if other factors do not change. The optimum position of the throttle butterfly is not wide open, but several degrees from this point. Opening it beyond the optimum position may cause an instability and loss of manifold pressure. If the open-throttle stops are set so that the throttle cannot open to the optimum position, an excessive pressure drop will exist across the carburetor. In order to obtain take off power, the regulator would have to be re calibrated to give a higher induction pressure. (The regulator should not be re-calibrated to offset incorrectly adjusted throttle stops, how ever.) This condition will exist at all altitudes and will cause the turbine to overspeed at a lower altitude. RESTRICTED , RESTRICTED Another function of the carburetor is to regulate the mixture of fuel and air, maintain ing the weight ratio constant in the normal operating range. Manual mixture adjustment is provided for high and low power conditions. Changing from automatic rich to automatic lean doesn't affect manifold pressure appre ciably, but excessive carburetor inlet pressure affects the mixture. Carburetors on B-24 air- · planes are designed to maintain a constant fuel-air ratio for variable inlet pressures up to 31" Hg. Above this pressure the mixture be cpmes lean; if carried too high, this causes deto nation and high cylinder-head temperatures. The next unit in the system is the internal blower. Since this blower is driven directly by the engine, any change in engine rpm causes the blower speed to change. This causes a change in the boost added to the lower carbu retor deck pressure to give the indicated mani fold pressure. At higher engine speeds with wide open throttle, the boost from this blower is a large part of the total manifold pressure, and a small change in engine rpm, resulting from a sluggish propeller governor, will bring a noticeable change in manifold pressure. (This effect is common in low temperatures, which cause the oil in the propeller dome to congeal and slow the rate of chan,ge in prop pitch. You can cor rect this by working the prop governor back and forth a few times to send warm engine oil through the dome.) If the engine rpm is reduced excessively, the turbine will have insufficient gases to operate on and a complete collapse of the cycle may occur. This gives the impression of improper turbo-supercharger regulation. When it occurs, the engine rpm should be increased. The next part of the system is the intake manifold, which obviously must be leak-proof if you are to get stable pressures. The engine itself comes next. Since manifold pressure depends upon a uniform flow of exhaust gas to drive the turbine, it follows that any flaw in engine operation-faulty valve action, faulty ignition, or changes in rpm-will alter the manifold pressure by causing fluctuations in exhaust pressure. Ignition is a common cause 107 RESTRICTED of unstable manifold pressure at altitude, because decreased atmospheric pressure leads to increased leakage throughout the electrical system. The ignition system must be in perfect condition to offset this tendency at altitude. The exhaust duct, turbine, and waste gate complete the supercharger system proper. The position of the waste gate controls the speed of the turbine by determining the amount of exhaust back pressure and, consequently, the amount of exhaust flow through the turbine wheel. The TBS knob and the Pressuretrol, as already explained, act upon the waste gate motor to control the position of the waste gate by reference to CIP. A further control of tur bine speed is exercised by the overspeed con-· trol feature of the governor. The parts of the regulating mechanism which can cause hunts in manifold pressure are the governor and the Pressuretrol. Improper func tioning of these units will be evident at all altitudes whenever boost is being used. To prevent turbine speed from overshooting its limit during power changes at altitude, the overspeed control opens the waste gate rapidly 108 to relieve exhaust back pressure, and then closes it at a slower rate to establish the limit ing turbo speed. Since turbine speed, instead of pressure, is controlled, a slight instability in manifold pressure will exist at higher powers. The fluctuation warns you when the overspeed control takes effect. Note: Manifold pressure should be reduced slightly whenever the overspeed control goes into operation. The device is designed to work when the turbine reaches maximum rated speed plus 10% . This overspeed rating should be limited to 5 minutes, as continued operation would greatly shorten the life of the turbine wheel. Reduce the turbine rpm about 10% by reducing manifold pressure approximately 1.5" Hg, and continue to reduce it by 1.5" for each 1000 feet you climb above that pofnt. The foregoing discussion is a general explan ation of how your engine works. The material which follows deals in greater detail with the individual parts of the power plant. Turbo-superchargers The turbo-superchargers are installed behind the mount support of each engine, below the RESTRICTED wing's lower surface. On early series B-24's, type B-2 turbos are used, while late B-24's have type B-22 turbos. The two types are al most identical in appearance, but differ in their limitations. The B-22 has a higher maximum rpm, and therefore a higher critical altitude, than the B-2. At normal rated power-2550 rpm and 46" Hg.-the B-22 has a maximum wheel speed of 24,000 rpm, compared to 21,300 rpm for the B-2. At military power-2700 rpm and 49" these speeds rise to 26,400 for the B-22 and 22,400 for the B-2, but use of this power is limited to 5 minutes. Because of the greater wheel speed, the B-22 turbo has a critical alti tude of 30,000 feet, as against 27,000 feet for the B-2 turbo. When you reach the critical altitude of the type of turbo you are using ( or when the over speed control takes effect on the B-22 type, producing fluctuations in manifold pressure), reduce manifold pressure 1.5" for every addi tional 1000 feet you climb at maximum mani fold pressure. If you are climbing at less than the maximum pressure, you can raise the crit ical altitude 1000 feet for each 1.5" that your manifold pressure is below the maximum. Thus, if the critical altitude is 30,000 feet at 46", .it will be 32,000 feet at 43", etc. Controls: The superchargers are regulated either through the engine oil pressure system or by electronic control. With the oil-regulated system, used on early B-24's, the pilot regu lates the turbos by means of 4 levers on the left side of the pedestal. The levers control the operation of the waste gates on the 4 engines through the oil type regulators. The electronic control is used on all late B-24's and is replacing the oil-regulated type on most early aircraft. In this system, the TBS knob is the manual control unit. It is mounted on the pilot's pedestal in the space former iy occupied by the 4 turbo levers. The TBS unit contains 4 small calibrated potentiometers which require adjustments only to compensate for small differences in engine or turbo per formance. Once the calibrators ar'e set, the pilot controls the turbo boost on all 4 engines simul taneously by turning the control knob. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED Electric Energy The source of all electric energy used by the turbo-supercharger control system is one of the airplane's 400-cycle inverters mounted under the flight deck, on the right side. Al though 2 such inverters are installed in the airplane, only one is used at a time. Either inverter supplies the 115-volt, 400-cycle alter nating current needed by the electronic con trol system. lntercoolers Heat from compression of the air by the turbo superchargers must be dissipated before it reaches the engine; otherwise, the normal car buretor intake temperature limits will be exceeded. This is accomplished by in:ercoolers or radiators in the air intake duct between the turbo-supercharger and the carburetor. Shut ters on the intercoolers are provided to regulate 109 RESTRICTED the carburetor air temperature. The shutters have 2 positions-full open and full closed. Extreme caution should be exercised when using intercooler shutters, and carburetor air and cylinder-head temperatures must be watched closely. 1. Wiper 3. Reference Bellows 2. Potentiometer 4. Operating Bellows 5. Vent and Drain The Pressuretrol Control of the pressure in the induction system is accomplished automatically by the Pressure trol. This unit measures electrically the pres sure of the air supplied by the turbo-super charger to the carburetor, and controls the automatic operation of the system to maintain whatever manifold pressure the pilot has se lected, regardless of the changes in the atmos pheric pressure caused by variations in the air plane's altitude. It consists of a voltage-dividing potentiometer operated by a pair of bellows, connected to the induction system near the car buretor inlet. The Turbo Governor The governor is a dual safety device driven by a flexible drive shaft which is geared to the turbo-supercharger. One part of the mechan ism, called the overspeed control, prevents the turbo from exceeding its safe operating speed 110 limit. The other part, the accelerometer, antici pates the pressure increase from turbo acceler ation and provides a signal to start opening the waste gate in time to prevent the overshooting of manifold pressure. The Amplifier The amplifier is an intermediate unit between the control units and the waste gate motor. It receives two kinds of signals from the other control units. One kind calls for rotation of the waste gate motor to close the gate; the other, for rotation to open it. After amplifying the sig nal, the amplifier determines the direction of movement called for and controls the power delivered to the waste gate motor accordingly. If the amplifier of any one of the 4 turbos fails, the waste gate remains fixed in the posi tion it held when the amplifier went out. It is possible, however, to adjust all 4 turbos to any desired manifold pressure even if only one of the 4 amplifiers, or the spare, is working. To do so, it is necessary to disconnect the cannon plugs from the amplifiers (accessible from the RESTRICTED bomb bay) . Then remove the dead amplifier for the turbo you wish to set up, and replace it with the good amplifier, reconnecting the can non plug. (The pilot must be on the alert for any turbo fluctuations, keeping his hand on the throttle to control sudden changes, until the amplifier warms up.) From that point on, the procedure is normal, except that when the turbo is properly set up, the cahnon plug is again disconnected, freezing the waste gate in RESTRICTED the desired position. This procedure can be used in flight or, if necessary, to set up desired power for takeoff. The Waste Gate Motor When the waste gate motor operates the waste gate in response to the control signals, it also operates a balancing potentiometer which pro duces a signal opposed to the original control signal. When the rotation of the motor is enough to make the 2 signals exactly neutralize TURBO-SUPERCHARGER AND REGULATOR SYSTEMS 1. Exhaust Tail Pipe 2. Turbo-supercharger Cooling Cap 3. Turbo-supercharger Bucket Wheel 4. Air Duct from Supercharger to lntercooler 5. Exhaust Waste Gate 6. Waste Gate Control Linkage 7. Exhaust Tail Pipe Outlet 8. lntercooler Shutter Control Linkage 9. lntercooler Motor Control Box 11. Turbo-supercharger Alternate Air Intake Duct 12. Auxiliary Wi~g Fuel Tank Manifold Connection 13. Alternate Air Intake Filter Box 14. Waste Gate Control Motor 15. Electric Cable 16. Turbo Regulator Governor l7. Turbo-supercharger Air Intake Duct 18. Turbo-supercharger 10. lntercooler Motor 19. Oil Cooler RESTRICTED 111 RESTRICTED each other, the power from the amplifier is cut off, and the waste gate motor stops. Operating Instructions Electronic Turbo Control 1. Engage the System-After turning on the air plane's battery switches, the main line switch, and one inverter switch, allow 2 minutes for the amplifier to warm up. The control system will then respond to the setting of the turbo boost selector. ~- Before Starting Engines-Set turbo boost selector at "0." Turn on auxiliary power unit. Warning: Never turn inverter off while engines are running, since tJ:ie control system is depend ent on the AC power for operation. 3. Taxiing-Set dial at "O" unless turbo boost is needed. 4. Engine Run-up-Set propeller governors for takeoff rpm and check the manifold pres sure on each engine separately by advancing throttle to full open position. Then tum dial of turbo boost selector to the desired position (''8" with Grade 100). If the manifold pressure on any engine fails to come up to within 1" of the takeoff pressure with full rpm, tum dial to "O" and check the engine rpm and manifold pressure without turbo boost. This will show whether the low manifold pressure is caused by faulty engine operation or by insufficient turbo boost. Also check DC voltage on the volt meter, with generators on. . Note: If engine does not attain full takeoff rpm, manifold pressure will be correspondingly less. ( A 100 rpm deficiency in engine speed will produce 1 ½ inches drop in manifold pressure.) 5. Takeoff-Turn turbo boost selector to de sired position (''8" with Grade 100) and then open the throttles. Note: Be sure generators are on and operat ing during and after takeoff; otherwise com plete electrical failure may result from low bat teries causing failure ·of electronic control. 6. Climbing-After takeoff, turn knob coun terclockwise until desired manifold pressure is reached. Decrease rpm to desired value. Re-set manifold pressure with turbo boost selector if necessary. For climbing after cruising, increase rpm first; then advance throttles and increase manifold pressure to the desired value by turn- 112 ing turbo boost selector clockwise. 7. Cruising-Use dial to select manifold pres sure. If manifold pressure cannot be lowered sufficiently with the knob, pull back on the throttles. Decrease rpm to desired value, and then, if necessary, re-set the manifold pressure with throttles and dial. If icing conditions prevail, close intercoolers and operate as close to full throttle as possible. If ice has already form~d ( indicated by reduced manifold pressure) open throttle and increase power settings until manifold pressure returns to normal. Watch cylinder-head temperatures closely when intercooler shutters are closed. 8. Emergency Power-Use only with Grade 100 fuel. Put mixture in "AUTO-RICH." In crease rpm· to maximum. Open throttles to the stops. Press dial stop release and turn dial clockwise to "10." Caution: Use only under extreme emergency conditions. No-boost Ground Run-up . The check recommended in 'Item 4 of the fore going procedures is an important step in de termining engine efficiency, and as such calls for fuller explanation. In a normal ground run up, engine speed is increased by advancing the throttle, with the prop remaining fixed at min imum pitch. Since prop pitch does not change, engine rpm above 1200 increases directly with manifold pressure. At full throttle, maximum rpm, the boost from the internal blower is a major factor in manifold pressure. Any engine deficiency which reduces horsepower also re duces rpm, and in turn causes manifold pres sure to fall off and further decreases horse power and rpm. The no-boost run-up, therefore, serves as a good indication of the condition of the engine when the manifold pressure and rpm are compared to those of an engine known to be operating properly. In making the compari son, it is important to take atmospheric pres sure and wind direction and velocity int_o con sideration. Because of the 'change in prop load ing, a rise in wind velocity from zero to 25 mph may alter engine speed by 50 rpm. In the range of engine speeds above 1400 rpm, rpm may be changed by altering prop pitch, keeping the throttle position fixed. RESTRICTED _J Overspeeding Turbo-supercharger This occurs infrequently but usually on take off. An overspeeding turbo is evidenced by the manifold pressure quickly going sky-high. A turbo can overspeed during takeoff and then settle down immediately afterward and con tinue to operate normally. If you know a turbo is overspeeding during the first third of takeoff, it is best not to take off if you have room in which to stop. Remedy With Electronic Control Don't feather with an overspeeding turbo. Re duce manifold pressure with throttle. You can't dial back supercharger setting or you will lose manifold pressure on all 4 engines. With the electronic supercharger control, a runaway supercharger is usually directly trace able to amplifier failure or insufficient electric power. Amplifier tubes control the opening and closing of the waste gate, and if the tube that controls opening of the waste gate is burned out, the supercharger may overspeed. There is a spare amplifier aboard and it can be changed ·as soon as you reach a safe altitude. Caution: Reduce power on the affected en gine when changing the amplifier, if circum stances permit, and give it 2 minutes to warm up. Then you can resume power. Never shut the inverter off for any length of time without reduc,ing power before bringing inverter on again. (Avoid turning inverter off unless in an emergency.) Remedy With Oil-Regulated Control On the oil-regulated type turbo, overspeeding usually results from clogging of the regulator balance lines or from congealed oil. The tend ency to overspeed will usually be ~vident when you are setting turbos during run-up. Don't feather. You are getting power from the engine, and you can use it. For the first step, you have two choices. Either pull back the supercharger control or reduce throttle to the desired manifold pressure. Reducing throttle is better because if the supercharger settles down after takeoff, it is easier to re-set the throttle than the supercharger control. If the turbo wheel continues to overspeed RESTRICTED RESTRICTED with throttle retarded, pull back the super charger control and control power with throttle. Carburetor and Mixture Controls The R-1830-43 engine is equipped with the Bendix Stromberg injection carburetor. The R-1830-65 engine has the Chandler-Evans Com pany (Ceco) carburetor. Metering of the fuel is accomplished by air flow through the carbu retor venturis. Four positions of the pilot's mix ture control lever can be used in operating the Bendix Stromberg carburetor: "IDLE CUT OFF," "AUTO-LEAN," "AUTO-RICH," and "FULL (EMERGENCY) RICH." With the Ceco carburetor, only the first three of these positions have any effect; the "FULL RICH" position on the control quadrant does not work. On all mixture control quadrants, however, the "FULL RICH" position is safety-wired off from the other three positions. An explanation of the control positions, and their effects, follows: Automatic Rich-The usual operating posi tion for mixture control, "AUTO-RICH" main tains the necessary fuel-air ratio for all flight conditions. At high power, the proportion of fuel to air is relatively high, to suppress detona tion and assist in cooling. Between normal rated and cruising powers the proportion of fuel is decreased, so that in the cruising range fuel consumption is reduced to the minimum re quired to prevent detonation and over-heating and to provide good acceleration. Automatic Lean-"AUTO-LEAN" is an alter nate operating position of the mixture control, resulting in leaner fuel-air ratios than auto matic rich. During the favorable conditions of stabilized level flight or a cruising descent, automatic lean may be used in the cruising power range when fuel economy is of primary importance and when cooling is adequate. Don't try to use intermediate settings beyond the "AUTO-LEAN" position. You gain nothing by any such attempt at manual leaning of the mixture. Full Rich-"FULL RICH" setting of the mix ture control renders inactive the altitude com pensating device built into the carburetor to compensate for changes in the density of the air flowing through the venturis and keep the 113 RESTRICTED fuel-air ratio constant. "FULL RICH," in real ity, is merely a manually enriched mixture, and should only be used when the automatic mix ture control unit gives evidence of faulty oper ation. Despite its other name of "EMER GENCY RICH," "FULL RICH" actually re sults in a loss of power whenever it is used. Torquemeter tests show, for example, that at 8500 feet, with 35" manifold pressure, 2500 rpm, and "AUTO-RICH," an engine develops 935 Hp. With the same settings and "FULL RICH," the engine develops only 775 HP-a loss of 160 Hp. Idle Cut-Off-Moving the mixture control past automatic lean to the end of its travel will stop all fuel flow, regardless of fuel pressure. "IDLE CUT-OFF" is intended for stopping the engine •without the hazard of backfiring. Mixture st~~ngth is increased when operat ing below the cruising power range. This en richment provides easier starting and the de pendable acceleration needed in taxiing and the approach for a landing. Fuel metering in this power range is accomplished largely by throttle opening. The accelerating pump is operated by, and in proportion to, the momentary changes in air pressure in the manifold entranc~. The ac celerating pump is not connected with the throt tle or throttle controls. Hence, when the engine is not running, no fuel is pumped from the car buretor when the throttle is moved, no matter how rapidly. You can not prime by pumping the throttle. Carburetor Icing This is the most talked of and least under stood type of icing. It is generally agreed that there is no such thing as a non-icing carburetor. However, carburetor ice and the remedies ·for it differ with each type of aircraft because of the difference in carburetors. Inductio.r:i-system ice can occur in the B-24. It is more likely to be refrigerated ice than atmospheric ice. Atmospheric ice can build up on any surface directly in the path of the intake air, such as the intercooler, carburetor butterfly valve, or the angle of the carburetor adapter ( usually in the order named). 114 When air is pouring through the induction system, sufficient temperature drop may cause precipitation of moisture. If the temperature is low enough in the system, the moisture will freeze and adhere to the closest surface. Forma tion of this ice anywhere in the induction sys tem can block off the flow of air to the engine and can cause almost instantaneous engine failure. Carburetor ice in the B-24 can occur during otherwise ideal flying conditions. It can occur when it is snowing or sleeting. It can occur any time carburetor air temperature is within the icing range. Watch your carburetor air tem perature when relative humidity is high. Know your induction system and what hap pens to the air pouring through it. Within 3 hours' time your induction sys'i..em will use air weighing as much as the airplane. Detection of Carburetor Ice-Icing can pro gress almost to the point of engine failure be fore it is indicated on your instruments unless you are alert. 1. Know your carburetor air temperature. If it drops down to 15°C when humidity is high HIGH + HUMIDITY ICING RESTRICTED take measures to bring it back up. Safe range is 15° to 35°C. Above 35°C there is danger of detonation. 2. Note any drop in manifold pressure. A low carburetor air temperature, together with a drop in manifold pressure, suggests carburetor icing. (Do not mistake a drop in manifold pres sure caused by change in altitude for carburetor ice.) 3. If you have low carburetor air tempera ture, plus a sudden drop in manifold pressure, plus a rough-running engine-then, brother, . you probably already have carburetor ice. Preventive Measures If you are flying at cruising power in conditions where there is danger of carburetor icing, close the intercooler shutters and operate as close to_ full throttle as possible. If ice has already formed (its formation will be indicated by re duced manifold pressure) , open the throttles and increase engine power settings until man ifold pressure returns to normal. Caution: Check cylinder-head temperature gages frequently whenever you are operating with the intercooler shutters closed. Excessive cylinder-head temperatures cause detonation. Function of lntercooler Shutters When the turbo compresses air, it generates RESTRICTED RESTRICTED heat in the air. This air is going to the carbu retor and would normally be too hot, so it passes through the intercooler. When inter cooler shutters are open, cool air, taken in through the air duct in the engine cowl, cools the hot air pouring through the intercoolers. When you close the shutters, the intercooler has no cooling effect so that the blast of hot air from superchargers goes uncooled to the car buretor, melts ice and very rapidly builds up the carburetor air temperature. If this goes too high,. you get detonation and engine failure. Closing your intercooler shutters, obviously, will not raise your carburetor air temperature unless turbos are operating. No Carburetor Air Temperature Gage: If your plane is not equipped with carburetor air temperature gages, you are short the most im portant instruments for detecting carburetor ice and for observing the effects of intercooler shutters. It becomes even more vital that you know relative humidity of the air through which you are flying. Avoid closing intercooler shutters unless you know there is danger of carburetor ice and then close them intermit tently for only a few seconds at a time. Leave them open the instant you note a rise in cyl inder-head temperatures or a recovery of mani fold pressure. 115 RESTRICTED POWER SETTINGS Grade 91 Fuel-Specification ANF-26 OPERATION SETTING MIXTURES RPM MP TIME LIMIT BMEP HP Takeoff Max. Auto-rich 2700 42" 5 Minutes 169 1060 Climb Max. Auto-rich 2550 38" 1 Hour 160 950 Climb Desired Auto-rich 2550 35" Continuous 147 870 Cruise Auto-lean 1650-2100* 30" Continuous Local Cruise Suggested Auto-lean 2000 30" Continuous 131 610 *Maximum and minimum rpm in ~uto-lean. Do not exceed 30" manifold pressure. Grade 100 Fuel-Specification ANFi-28 OPERATION SETTING MIXTURES RPM MP TIME LIMIT BMEP HP Takeoff Max. Auto-rich 2700 49" 5 Minutes 192 1200 Climb (Normal Rated Power) Max. Auto-rich 2550 46" Continuous* 186 1100 Climb Desired Auto-rich 2550 41" Continuous 167 990 Cruise Max. Auto-rich 2325 35" Continuous 152 820 Cruise. Max. Auto-lean 2200 32" Continuous 140 715 Cruise Desired Auto-lean 2000 30" Continuous 131 610 *Cyl. head temp. not to exceed 232°C. For temperatures of 232° to 260°, time limi~ is 1 hour. DEFINITIONS OF RATINGS Takeoff Rating: This is the maximum power and engine speed permissible for takeoff and should be maintained only long enough to clear obstructions. Military Power: This is the maximum power permitted for the military services with less re gard for long life of the engine than for imme diate tactical needs. Military rating is compa rable to takeoff power with manifold pressures modified to suit altitude conditions, and may be used for 5 minutes in any attitude of flight. Normal Rated Power: This is frequently re ferred to as a normal maximum rating) or max imum except takeoff power. It is the maximum power1 at which an engine may be operated con tinuously for emergency or high performance operation in climb or level flight if cylinder- 116 head temperatures do not exceed 232°C. Maximum Power and RPM for Cruising: This rating stipulates both the maximum power and maximum rpm permissible for continuous oper ation with the mixture control in automatic lean. The proper combination of rpm and man ifold pressure for the particular horsepower, load and altitude desired can be determined from the cruising control charts. In takeoff emergencies, you can get 1350 Hp from your engines by using auto-rich, 2700 rpm, and 56" manifold pressure. These settings give you a BMEP (brake mean effective pressure) of 216. Use this emergency power only if you have to, and then only for the shortest possible time-never more than 5 minutes. Don't go into full (emergency) rich; you sacrifice power if you do. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED SEQUENCE OF POWER CHANGES There are ironclad rules regarding the sequence for increasing or reducing power. Failure to follow the sequence can cause premature firing, excessive pressures, .overheating, detonation, and engine failure. Three inter-related ele ments are involved in any power change, namely: mixture, manifold pressure, and rpm. Relationship of Mixture and Manifold Pressure , "AUTO-LEAN," for example, automatically reduces the proportion of fuel to air to provide efficient firing with minimum expenditure of fuel. However, as manifold pressure is in creased (increasing the pressure in the cyl inders), there is a point beyond which the ex cess pressure will cause hot, hard, and fast fir ing, with detonation and overheating. If the fuel-air ratio is richer, the same manifold pres sure will produce slower, stronger firing, with less heat. That's why richer mixtures must be used at higher power settings. ' On the other hand, too rich a mixture inter feres with the proper expansion and firing of the gases and results in over loading, torching, and loss of power. Relationship of Man!fold Pressure and RPM The constant-speed propeller does exactly what its name · i:rp.plies. The propeller governors function so that if propellers are set for a given rpm, governors automatically change the pitch of the propellers to keep them turning at the given rpm. Thus, if a propeller governor is set for 1900 rpm ~nd manifold pressure is in creased, the governors increase the pitch of propellers so they take a larger bite and con tinue to turn at 1900 rpm; this puts a larger load on the power plant and builds up pressure in the ~ylinders. This is permissible within specified limits, but as pressure increases heat increases. An increase in the speed of propellers gives an outlet for the extra power being pro duced. Brake Mean Effective Pressure The brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) is the average pressure within the cylinder of an engine during the power stroke of the piston. As the pressure within the cylinder is in creased, more heat is developed because of the energy of compression. If the pressure and temperature increase sufficiently, detonation occurs. The formula for determining BMEP for 1830-43. or 65 P & W engines is: BMEP = 433 X BHP RPM RESTRICTED STEPS FOR INCREASING P·OWER 1. Mixture Controls. Copilot sets the mixture controls to "AUTO RICH" (if necessary) at pilot's signal. Reason: Maximum setting in "AUTO-LEAN" is 32" manifold pressure and 2200 rpm with Grade 100 fuel, and 30" and 2100 rpm with Grade 91 fuel. It is obvious that if power is to be increased beyond these maximums the mixture should first be set in "AUTO-RICH." 2. Propellers. Copilot increases rpm to desired setting. This should precede the manifold pressure increase to eliminate the danger of an excessive BMEP (brake mean effective pressure) and resultant detonation. 118 3. Throttles. Pilot advances throttles as the rpm is in creased. If more power than full throttle is re quired, superchargers are advanced. 4. Superchargers With electronic control, advance the TBS knob. With oil regulator, the supercharger con trols may all be advanced together, but it is advisable to set them one at a time, starting with the dead-engine side if operating with a dead engine. Always use full throttle before applying supercharger boost. Reason: A par tially closed throttle will create a back pres sure in the induction system resisting turbo pressure. This causes a rise in carburetor air temperature with possible power loss and detonation. RESTRICTED STEPS FOR REDUCING POWER· 1. Superchargers To reduce power, pilot first slowly retards supercharger controls-TBS or levers: slowly in order to prevent ·cracking of the turbo nozzle box by too rapid cooling, supercharge:rs before throttles to prevent back pressure in induction system. 2. Throttles. Pilot retards throttles before reducing rpm. · Reason: Manifold pressures must be reduced RESTRICTED RESTRICTED before propellers in order to keep BMEP on the low side of safe limits and to prevent detonation. 3. Propellers. Copilot decreases rpm at command of pilot. This must follow throttles. A sufficiently low rpm permits mixtures to be brought to "AUTO LEAN.'' 4. Mixture Controls. Copilot puts mixture controls in "AUTO LEAN" if new power setting falls within limits of manifold pressure, rpm and cylinder-head temperatures. Wait until engines are cool be fore going into "AUTO-LEAN," because a hot engine increases the tendency to detonate. 119 RESTRICTED CAUSES OF ENGINE FAILURE In · considering engine failures, always remem ber there are three things that make an engine run-fuel, oil, and ignition. Failure of any of these three systems, plus structural failure, are the only things which can cause the loss of an eng~ne. Structural failure can be mechanical-the re sult of faulty construction or maintenance-but most of the time it is induced. Accident anal yses show that pilot error far outruns mechan ical failure in bringing about engine troubles. Here are a few examples of stupid pilot errors which induce engine failure; avoid them. 1. Failure to Know Gas Consumption. Ex ample: A pilot flew 5 ½ hours on a practice bombing mission in "AUTO-RICH" at a high power setting. Airplane crashed and 5 men lost their lives. 2. Failure to Reduce Manifold Pressure at High Altitude. This can result in an overspeed ing turbo wheel disintegrating. One of the buckets coming your way is just like a .50-cal. bullet. 3. Failure to Turn Booster Pumps On at High Altitudes. 4. Increasing Power Without Changing Pro peller Setting. 5. Increasing Manifold Pressure Before RPM Instead of After. 6. Failure to Use Auto-Rich in Power Set tings Above Normal Cruise. 7. Stiff-Arming Throttles. 8. Failure to Observe Engine Instruments and to Control Excessive Temperatm·es. 9. Failure to Know the Fuel System for Par- ticular Airplane You Are Flying. 10. Waiting Too Long to Transfer Fuel. 11. Taking Off in Auto-Lean. 12. Failure to Turn On Booster Pumps for Takeoff, Causing Collapse of Fuel Lines or Vapor Lock. 13. Failure to Observe Carburetor and Free Air Temperature Under Icing Conditions. 120 14. Waiting Until Too Late to Correct for Carburetor Ice. 15. Improper Use of lntercooler Shutters Re sulting in Excessive Carburetor Heat and Deto nation. Example: One pilot, at high altitude, thought he had an icing condition but failed to observe normal carburetor air temperature. He closed the intercooler shutters, producing high carburetor air and cylinder-head temperatures, followed by the failure of 3 engines. Never let carburetor air temperature get above 35°C, especially when using Grade 91 fuel. 16. Failure to Have Fuel Valve Selectors on Tank-to-Engine for Take-off and Climb. One pilot took off with all fuel valves on crossfeed with bomb bay transfer pump on, using gas from bomb bay tanks only. After takeoff, co pilot turned off the bomb bay transfer pump switch, which is located on his instrument panel, thinking it was a booster pump. Immedi ately 4 engines failed and the ship crashed. 17. Improper Procedure With Overspeeding Turbo on Takeoff. Example: Pilot took off and experienced an overspeeding turbo, running manifold pressure beyond gage limits. He failed to reduce power and bring the turbo under con trol. The engine blew 5 cylinders and froze in high rpm. He managed to land, but unneces sarily destroyed an engine. 18. Immediate Feathering of a Runaway Pro peller When the Propeller Could Have Been Brought Under Control With Proper Proce dure. Example: Pilot, during takeoff with a combat load, experienced a runaway propeller. Without trying to bring the propeller under control he feathered immediately . He was un able to maintain altitude and the ship crashed shortly after takeoff. Proper procedure would have given 15 to 50 % power on that engine. DETONATION Improper firing may be caused by a hot spot within the cylinder, an overheated sparkplug, exhaust valve, carbon deposit, etc. Once this gets started, it becomes progressively worse. The timing of the engines becomes uncontrolled RESTRICTED and roughness, and/ or detonation, results. The engine becomes overheated and loses power. Some of the factors over which you have con trol, and which increase the tendency of the engine to detonate, are: High manifold pressure with low engine speed; too lean a mixture; high inlet temperatures; high cylinder-head. temper atures; and improper low-grade fuel. Under normal conditions, the fuel charge in a cylinder burns quite slowly. When detonation occurs the first part of the charge within the cylinder burns rapidly. This compresses the un burned part of the charge until the pressure and temperature within the cylinder rise so RESTRICTED high that the unburned portion of the charge is ignited spontaneously, or detonated. The pressure of the unburned charge fluctu ates at a high frequency. These fluctuations lit erally hammer the wall of the cylinder and cause the familiar knock. Even mild detonation will cause overheating, valve, piston, and cylinder-head burning, piston· scuffing, and piston ring and valve damage. , Severe detonation will cause engine failure in a short time. Complete engine failure can occur because of detonation during the time it takes you to make a takeoff run. The indications of detonation are roughness and overheating. SOME EXAMPLES OF FAULTY OPERATION Manifold Cyl. Head Oil Oil Fuel Carburetor Fault Flight Reaction RPM Pressure Temp. Temp. Pressure Pressure Air Temps. Broken Fuel Drop if Line Yaw * - Turbo on Rapid Drop Drop Zero Broken Oil Drop Line Rise Rise to Zero Breakage of Moving Engine Possible Violent Violent Parts Vibration Fluctuation Unpredictable Unpredictable Rise Variable Variable Ignition Rough Running Engine Fluctuation Trouble and Intermittent Yaw Fluctuation if Turbo on Drop Overheating from Closed Probable lntercoolers Drop Rapid Rise Rise Rise Mixture Too Torching Turbo or Black Rich Smoke Slight Drop Slight Drop Failure of Auto-Mixture . Rise or Rise or Rise or Feature Rough Running Engine Fluctuation Drop Drop Drop Overspeeding Possible Turbo Overspeeding Violent Rise Rapid Rise Rise Rise Runaway Rapid Propeller Possible Vibration Increase Drop Variable Variable Carburetor Ice Rough Running Engine Fluctuation Drop Drop Restricted Drop if Fuel Flow Slight Yaw Turbo on Drop Fluctuation *Sign - (Dash) indicates no apparent change. RESTRICTED 121 RESTRICTED .··.· EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEMS HYDRAULIC SYSTEM ELECTRICAL SYSTEM OIL SYSTEM FUEL SYSTEM HEATING SYSTEM ANTI-ICERS, DE-ICERS AND DEFROSTERS OXYGEN SYSTEM VENTILATING SYSTEM AUTOMATIC PILOT, PDI AND FORMATION STICK GYRO FLUX GATE COMPASS RADIO EQUIPMENT Know your airplane! That's the only way you can qualify yourself to fly it with maximum effectiveness. W~ich instruments are autosyn? ' Where are the fuse boxes? How do you transfer fuel in your particular airplane? What is the layout of the oil system? This is just a start on the questions every pilot will want to be able to answer in detail to be prepared to meet emer gencies that can jeopardize his airplane and his crew. Here's what a B-24 combat pilot says: "What you know about the airplane will determine whether you can bring one back that is badly shot up. If we had it to do all over, we would dig in twice as hard to know that airplane from one end to the other. You may be able to get by the minor things, such as engine trouble, but when you run into damage 122 to systems from AA and fighter fire, you must know a lot about the. airplane to fly it home.'' The following sections give brief, basic in formation about the airplane. Don't be satisfied with what you learn here. Query your instruc tor, your engineer, read the P.I.F., dig into tech nical orders and study the airplane from nose to tail repeatedly. RESTRICTED H Y.D RAUL I c. SYSTEMS The principle of hydraulic power is the actu ating of a piston within a cylinder, usually double acting. Pressure may be applied to either side. of the piston for power in either direction, by means of hydraulic pressure sup plied by a power pump. Oils and liquids are not compressible; therefore, the power delivery of any hydraulic system is directly proportional to the applied pressure. Hydraulic Equipment in the B-24 1. The main hydraulic system operates the tricycle landing gear (including retractable tailskid), wing flaps, bomb bay doors, power brake, Sperry automatic pilot (when supplied), and the nose turret. 2. The hydraulic shock absorber units cush ion the landing impact and taxiing loads on the tricycle landing gear. 3. The hydraulic nosewheel shimmy damper unit dampens the tendency of the nosewheel to shimmy from side to side. 4. The hydraulic tail and nose turret units control the rotation of the turrets, the elevation of the guns, and the charging mechanisms. Main Hydraulic System The hydraulic system consists of a main open center system and a secondary accumulator system. It uses hydraulic fluid of specification AN-VV-0-366a. The capacity of the ~ntire sys tem is approximately 18 U.S. gallons, while the reservoi.r capacity is 3.8 gallons from bottom of reservoir to center suction outlet, .plus 3 gal lons from center suction outlet to filler neck. 1. In the open center system the fluid circu lates freely in a completely closed circuit when no hydraulic mechanisms other than the en gine-driven pump are operating. The open cen- RESTRICTED .RESTRICTED ter system operates the bomb bay doors, wing flaps and landing gear. 2. In the accumulator· system fluid is under constant high pressure built up in two accumu lators. This system is the sole source of pressure for operation of brakes, nose turret, Sperry TAIL TURRET HYDRAULIC SYSTEM automatic pilot (when provided), and auxiliary and emergency (hydraulic) control of bomb bay doors. Hydraulic Pumps 1. Engine-Driven Hydraulic Pump The main, or Vickers positive displacement, pump (19), driven by No. 3 engine, supplies pressure for the main system. The pump nor mally floats on the line. When the flow is di verted by closing any selector valve to operate an hydraulic mechanism, pressure builds up to an amount required to operate the mechanism. The pump's secondary function is to main tain pressure in the accumulator system. An automatic unloading valve (9) in the engine- 123 RESTRICTED 124 RESTRICTED RESTRICTED MASTER KEY . LIST OF HYDRAULIC UNITS FOR HYDRAULIC SYSTEM DIAGRAMS • J; Bomb Bay Door Selector Valve 23. Shuttle Valve 2. Brake Pressure Gages 24. Flap Actuating Cylinder 3. (L & R) Brake Control Valves 25. Suction Line Check Valve 4. Landing Gear Selector Valve 26. Auxiliary Star Valve 5. Flap Selector Valve 27. Fluid Reservoir 6. Nosewheel Actuating Cylinder 28. Filter 7. Nose Turret Shut-Off Valve 29. (L & R) Bomb Bay Doors Actuating 8. Nosewheel Restrictor Cylinder 9. Unloading Valve 30. Bomb Door Cylinder Relief Valve 10. Hand Pump 31. Auxiliary System Relief Valve 11. Hydraulic System Pressure Gage 32. (L & R) Brake Bleeder Valve 12. (L & R) Accumulators 33. Test Stand Connections 13. Hand Pump System. Valve 34. Check Valve 13A Hand Pump Flap Valve 35. Check Valve • 14. Nose Turret Check Valve 15. Auxiliary Electric Pump 36. Left Accumulator Check Valve 16. Relief Valve (Spring Removed) 17. Bomb Door Emergency and Utility 37. Right Accumulator Check Valve Control Valve 38. Auxiliary Pump Check Valve 18. Main Landing Gear Restrictor 39. Tail Bumper Shut-Off Valves 19. Engine Driven Pump 40. Tail Bumper Actuating Cylinder 20. Pressure Switch 41. Automatic Seal Coupling 21. (L & R) Main Landing Gear Actuating 41 A Automatic Seal Coupling Cylinder 42. Emergency Suction Valve 22. Relief Valve 43. Brake Disconnect Coupling RESTRICTED 125 RESTRICTED driven pump pressure line regulates this oper ation. When the accumulators are charging, all the fluid flow in the open center line is diverted by the unloading valve to the accumulators. 2. Auxiliary Hydraulic Pump An electrically driven gear-type pump (15), located on the right side of the fuselage in the forward bomb bay, maintains accumulator pressure when the engine driven pump is not operating. An automatic pressure switch (20) and a manual master switch control the pump motor. When the engine-driven pump fails, an emer gency hydraulic (star) valve (26) just above and forward of -the auxiliary hydraulic pump may be turned on to connect the pump into the main system. The auxiliary hydraulic pump receives power from the right hand power bus-normal load 95 to 98 amperes-and has 2 functions: a. Accumulator charging function-The aux iliary hydraulic pump is turned on before taxi ing and off before takeoff, and turned on again just before landing. When turned on ( emer gency hydraulic star valve (26) closed) this pump maintains the pressure in both accumu lators (12L) and (12R) between the limits 975 lb. sq. in. and 1180 lb. sq. in. while the engine pump supplies fluid only to the open center system selector valves. This is made possible by the relative pressure adjustments of unload ing valve (9) and pressure switch (20). b. Emergency function-In the event of fail ure of engine-driven pump (19) or engine No. 3 to which it is attached, the auxiliary hydraulic pump is turned on and interconnected to the 126 open center pressure line by opening emer gency hydraulic (star) valve (26). Then the auxiliary hydraulic pump performs exactly the functions of the engine driven pump. 3. Hydraulic Hand Pump The hydraulic hand pump (10) is located outboard of the copilot's seat. This pump de livers pres~ure to the llne and can be used for operation of the entire hydraulic system by pumping fluid into the open center line through forward valve (13) on hand pump; or it can be used independently for lowering of the wing flaps by pumping fluid through aft valve (13A) to the flap cylinder. Fluid for the hand pump (10), which is not part of the open center system, is drawn from the bottom of the reservoir through a separate line. The hand pump is used only for emer gency operation. Reserve Fluid-In the event of low fluid level in the reservoir (27) the engine-driven pump and the electrically driven pump may be con nected to the bottom of the reservoir by closing the suction valve ( 42) provided in the reservoir outlet. This should be done only after steps have bee~ taken to insure that no further loss of fluid can take place, or the reserve supply will be wasted through the same outlet. Caution: The landing gear, bomb bay doors, and flaps retracting mechanisms cannot be operated simultaneously. ( ~YDRAULIC PRESSURE Operating Pressures The main system pressure gage on the instru ment panel should indicate approximately 50 lb. with no controls operating. ·With any system being used, this pressure should rise to between 100 and 1100 lb. The wing flaps should be operated before flight to allow the pilot to check the system and the operating pressures · built up at the gage. The brake pressure gage should always show a pressure of approximately 850 to 1180 lb. sq. in. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED PRESSURE SEfflNGS Engine pump relief valve Auxiliary electric pump relief valve 1250 lb. sq. in. 1250 lb. sq. in. Bomb doors open relief valve . . . . Wing flaps down relief valve 750 lb. 500 lb. sq. in. sq. in. Auxiliary pump pressure switch Accumulator unloading valve . 975-1180 lb. sq. . 850-1050 lb. sq. in. in. SELECTOR VAL VE RELIEF Landing gear Up Wing flaps Up Bomb bay doors Open LANDING GEAR AND TAIL BUMPER HYDRAULIC CONTROL The landing gear (2 main wheels, nosewheel) and the tail bumper gear are operated simul taneously under hydraulic control. The main control ( 4) for extending arid retracting the gear is located on the left side of the pilot's ped estal. Movement of the operating lever is re strained by an electric solenoid, which is con trolled by 2 switches in series. The operating switch is a push button in the operating handle itself; the other, a safety switch, is located on the left landing gear fairing. Extension of the landing gear strut on takeoff closes the safety switch and allows the circuit to be completed by pressing the operating switch button on the valve operating lever. The locking solenoid is located back of the instrument panel, and re strains the lever from "UP" position only. Movement of selector valve (4) to the "UP" position applies hydraulic pressure simultane ously to the side gear restrictor (18) and to the nosewheel actuating cylinder (6). The side gear restrictor restricts the flow of fluid to the main landing gear until the pressure reaches 800 lb. sq. in. This pressure is sufficient to house the RESTRICTED 1100 lb. sq. in. Down 850 lb. sq. in. 750 lb. sq. in. Down 450 lb. sq. in. 600 lb. sq. in. Close 1000 lb. sq. in. nose gear. When pressure exceeds 800 lb. sq. in. the restrictor opens and allows fluid to go to the side gear cylinders. On the lowering operation, pressure is ap plied to all 3 gear cylinders simultaneously. In case of insufficient pressure in the hydraulic system, th~ hand pump may be used. In case of complete failure of the hydraulic system, the tricycle landing gear may be low ered manually. No means of manual control is provided for the tail bumper. Main landing Gear Each main landing gear mechanism, operated by the main retracting cylinders through over rides, is equipped with 2 latches. Down-Latch on Drag Strut Knuckle When the main gear is fully extended, a spring-loaded latch on the side brace knee holds the side brace rigid and locks the gear in place. 127 RESTRICTED Another latch, on the side brace pivot in the wing, locks the gear in the retracted position. The main gear down-latch is painted yellow and can be seen for down-latch check from the side window. It cannot be seeri if flaps are low ered. Nosewheel Gear The nosewheel retracts into the nose of the fuselage under the pilot's floor. The nosewheel doors are mechanically connected to the gear mechanism so that they open automatically be fore the gear is extended and close after the gear is retracted. The nosewheel is designed to turn 45 ° either side of the center line for free ground maneu.;. verability but should never be turned more 128 than 30°. A hydraulic shimmy damper tends to restrain any oscillation of the gear about its vertical axis. An internal centering cam in the oleo returns the wheel to its straight-ahead position when the oleo is fully ~xtended. A single latch on the drag link, actuated by the hydraulic jack over-ride, locks the nosewheel gear in both the retracted and extende·d posi tions. Tailskid and Tail Bumper Gear A retractable tailskid and bumper is installed on aircraft beginning with Serial No. 41-23640. It may be used within certain limits on tail-low landings. Do not land skid first. The tail bumper protects the bottom of the fuselage in case the airplane should accidentally tilt back. Warning Signal Light A green light on pilot's instrument panel is lighted whenever the landing gear is down and locked. Further warning that the gear has not been extended is given by an electric horn ( on some aircraft) connected to the throttle controls. When the throttles are moved backward to ap proximately ¾ closed, and all landing wheels are not extended·and locked, the horn will blow Nosewheel Landing Gear Assembly RESTRICTED until the gear has been extended and locked or until the throttles are opened to higher engine speed. The horn may be silenced by pressing the pilot's interruption switch on the pilot's pedestal. The horn will then remain silent until the throttles are moved again. This re-sets the horn relay so that another closing of the throt tles would again actuate the horn. The horn interruption switch is provided in the event it is necessary to continue flight with one or more engines throttled. The green light is wired through switches on all 3 landing gear units. On aircraft equipped with bottom turrets, this warning is also given when the turret has not been fully retracted and when the guns have not been completely housed. Note: On recent aircraft, there is a push-to test button for the warning light. This button tests only the operation of the light itself; it is not a check on whether the gear is down and locked. The green light should go on when you push the button, even if the gear is up. If it doesn't go on, the bulb may be burned out. If you lower the gear and the light does not indi cate down and locked, don't assume that the gear is down and locked if the light goes on when you push the test button. WING FLAP HYDRAULIC CONTROL General The Fowler-type wing flaps are operated by a single hydraulic jack (24) which lies along the left rear wing spar at Wing Station 3.0. The flaps move along tracks in the trailing edge and RESTRICTED are extended and retracted by a lever on the right side of the pilot's pedestal. To raise flaps, move lever forward; to lower flaps, pull lever aft. ' FLAPS UP With full flaps extended, speeds in excess of 155 mph will create a sufficient pressure on the flaps to open a relief valve (22) at the operating cylinder and allow the flaps to retract auto matically. Caution: This relief valve is a safety precau tion only. Do not test durmg flight as the ex cessive pressures required for this operation might damage the mechanism. In case of partial failure of the main hydrau lic system, the hand pump (10) outboard of the copilot's seat may be used through an inde pendent direct line to the flap cylinder to ex tend only. In case of complete failure of the hydraulic system, no manually controlled system is pro vided for the wing flaps. BOMB BAY DOORS HYDRAULIC CONTROL Two individual hydraulic iacks, one on each side of the fuselage, operate the bomb bay doors. The operation of the bomb bay doors is controlled from any one of 4 positions: 1. Bombardier's compartment 2. Under radio operator's floor at hatch open ing 3. On the ground from access door on right side forward of bomb bay door 4. Pilot's compartment RESTRICTED Main control valve Auxiliary control valve Auxiliary control valve Emergency operation of auxiliary valve. Doors may be opened but not closed until pull line is re-set 129 RESTRICTED CAUTION: The pilot's emergency pull line to the auxiliary valve cam (see No. 4 control) must be re-set by hand or hydraulic system will bypass through the bomb jack relief valve, thus affecting the entire hydraulic system. Under military operating conditions the main control valve is used to control the operation of the doors. The auxiliary valve, in the accumulator sys tem, is generally used for local flight operations. In case of complete failure of the hydraulic system, the doors may be operated manually by hand cranks accessible from the catwalk at the center of the bomb bay. Bomb Bay Door Position Indicators When these doors are fully open the following lights are illuminated: 1. A red light on the bombardier's panel. 2. An amber light on the pilot's panel. 3. A white light on the tail to notify other airplanes in the formation. POWER BRAKE HYDRAULIC CONTROL Two completely separate units operate the hy draulic brakes. Each unit contains 2 brake cyl inders which control one of the dual Hayes ex panding-bladder-type brakes on each main landing wheel. One cylinder of each unit is mechanically interconnected to the right brake pedal of both pilot and copilot; the other cyl inder of each unit is similarly connected to both left brake pedals. Each unit takes its pressure directly from a different one of the 2 main accumulators which are isolated from each other by check valves so that failure of one accumulator does not affect the other. Failure of one complete unit leaves ½ braking power available. 130 NOSEWHEEL HYDRAULIC SHIMMY DAMPER In landing or takeoff the nosewheel has a tend ency to shimmy. A shimmy damper installed on the oleo strut dampens out this vibration without restricting any of the normal functions of the nosewheel. Two types of shimmy damp ers are installed on B-24 aircraft. One type utilizes 2 hydraulic cylinders which act in op posite directions and are connected to an ac cumulator. Vibration is absorbed by the com bined action of fluid passing through a re stricted orifice and by the compressed air in the accumulator. Accumulator Type Damper The other type of shimmy damper is a single self-contained un~t which dampe~s vibration by causing hydraulic fluid to flow through re stricted orifices. Houdaille Type Damper In case of failure of the early accumulator type of shimmy damper, provision was made for locking it in a straight-travel, non-steerable position. This procedure was covered by an instruction chart at Station 1.2 on the right of the fuselage. No locking procedure is provided for the later type of Houdaille shimmy damper. RESTRICTED ELECTRICAL SYSTEM Power Supply 1. When the engines are operating, power is generated by four 24-volt, 200-ampere, type P-1 generators, one on each engine. The volt age of each generator may be adjusted at the voltage regulator under the flight deck on each side of the centerline. 2. Main battery power ~s supplied by two 24- volt, 34-ampere-hour batteries connected in parallel. 3. Auxiliary power is supplied by a type C-10 auxiliary generator, with a capacity of 2.0 kilo watts and powered by an independent gasoline engine (Homelite unit) . This auxiliary gener ator must be run for starting engines, or in the case of main generator failure in flight. The auxiliary power unit is not supercharged and power generation from the auxiliary unit, therefore, ceases at high altitudes. 4. For ground operation a provision is made for an external (battery cart) connection. Al ways use battery cart for first .starts, where available, or have auxiliary power unit in oper ation. The excessive loads incident to initial start will shorten the life of the main batteries. Note: The battery switches must be left off when using battery cart. Electrical Systems 1. Direct current, 24-volt, single-wire system. Most of the electric equipment in the airplane, including late design of fluorescent lighting, is supplied through this system. 2. Alternating current 26-volt system for the autosyn indicator system. 3. Alternating current 115-volt system for the fluorescent lighting on some airplanes and • the radio compass. Two independent inverters . controlled by a selector switch on the pilot's pedestal permit use of either unit. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED 4. Alternating current 3-volt system for com pass lighting, on some airplanes. 5. Miscellaneous systems for the gun turrets, automatic flight controls and radio. Fuse Boxes and Circuits From the various fuse boxes to which the above power is delivered, the following 16 DC and AC primary circuits distribute power to the mechanisms those circuits operate: Heating and ventilating controls Bomb release and signals Propeller controls Ice elimination controls, fuel and hydraulic pumps Exterior lights Instruments Ignition High tension Automatic flight controls and turrets Interior and recognitio11. lights Landing gear signals and flap position indi- cator Power Radio and communication Engine starter Engine controls Misc. ( camera, alarm bell, etc.) Lights Location and purpose of interior lights is given in the section on night flying. Panels and Switchboards Generator control panel is on forward face of bulkhead at Station 4.1, left side of flight deck, 131° -w ...., J LEGEND 1. Reverse Current Relay (4 req .) 2 . Ammeter Shunt (4 req.) 3. Generator Resistor (4 req .) 4. Current Limiter far Gun Turrets (250 Ampere) 5. Current Limiter far Wing Power Cable (400Ampere) 6. Current limiter for Outside Battery Circuit (400 Ampere) 7 . Current limiter far Gun Turrets (250 Ampere) 8. Current Limiter for Auxiliary Electric Hydraulic Pump (250 Ampere) Power Bus, Wing, Right Hand Outside Battery Solenoid Switch 11 . Current Limiter for Gun Turrets (250 Ampere) 12. Power Bus, Wing, Left Hand 13. Current Limiter for Wing Power Cable (400 Ampere) Tail Turret Fuse Box Current Limiter for Bottom Turret (250 Ampere) Station 6.1 Fuse Box Station 5.-4 Fuse Box . Landing light Filament Fuse (2 req.) Current limiter for Generators (250 Ampere, 4 req.) Current limiter for Starter ond Propeller Fast Feathering Motor (250 Ampere, 4 req. ) Generator, Type P-1 (4 req.) Battery, Solenoid Switches (2 req.) Switch, Auxiliary Power Unit Auxiliary Power Unit Master Battery Ground Switch Batteries, Type G-1 (2 req .) Current Limiters for Batteries (250 Ampere, 2 req.) Main Power Bus Station 3. 1 Fuse Bax Pilot's Fuse Bax Nose Turret Fuse Box Bomb Panel Station 4 .0 Fuse Box Outside Battery Receptacle Heater Fuse Box {lo 42-7351-4) Battery oncj__lgnition Master Switch Battery Switches Battery and Ignition Switch Bax Capilot', Fuse Box Switch, Top Turret Power SOURCES AND DISIRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY ..,- m "' -t .., n -t m C and carries 4 field switches to cut generators in or out of main system. One voltmeter with multi-point selector switch indicates voltage output of each generator or main bus, and the 4 ammeters, one for each generator, indicate current flow. Voltage regulators, 2 on each side forward of bulkhead at Station 4.0 under flight deck, pro vide generator voltage adjustment for balance of load. Five main electric switch panels control the distribution of power to the 16 primary circuits. One of these is at the left of the bombardier; the other 4 are in the pilot's compartment. Spare Current Limiters, Fuses and Lamps The fusible links for the 4 main generators are not accessible in flight; neither are the landing light filament circuit fuses nor the nacelle power circuit limiters in the nacelle junction boxes. Fuses and interior limiters are replaceable in flight and are located as follows: 1. Spare fusible links are located in the lim iter boxes which are located as follows: 2 on lett accumulator bracket; 4 on the left and 6 on the right rear face of the bulkhead at Station 4.1. All limiters require a ½-inch wrench to re- . move and install. 2. Spare fuses are provided in each fuse box. 3. A spare bulb for the landing gear down position indicator is clipped to the instrument panel. 4. A sp~re bulb assortment is located aft of bulkhead at Station 4.0 on the left side. No spare bulbs for exterior lights are carried. Note: Fuse boxes in general are located nec',lr places where fuses are used. Open these boxes and study the chart to see what fuses are pro vided and where they are used. This will save a hurried hunt in emergencies. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED OIL SYSTEM Each engine nacelle contains its independent oil system, consisting of a hopper-type self-sealing tank 32.9 U.S. (27.3 Imperial) gallons, temper ature regulator, engine pump, and propeller feathering pump. Engine oil systems provide oil for lubrication of the turbo-supercharger impellers and for operation of the propeller feathering system. The supercharger waste gate regulator, Eclipse type A-13, which is installed on early B-24G, H, and J aircraft, is also actuated by engine oil pressure. The oil dilution valve for each engine is con trolled by a switch located on the copilot's switch panel. Engine oil may be heated by ex ternally powered neck-type immersion heaters. An oil temperature indicator located on the copilot's instrument panel indicates the oil tem perature as determined by a resistance bulb in the Y drain valves. An oil pressure indicator located on the co pilot's instrument panel measures the oil .pres sure at a restricted fitting in the rear crank case section as determined by an autosyn trans mitter. Oil Dilution Oil dilution is necessary when ground tem peratures reach 4°C or lower, in order to keep the oil from congealing so much that starting will be difficult. 133 -w ~ ;a m "' ~ ;a n ~ m .C Autosyn Elec. Unit Pressure Gauge / Temperature rs] Gauge Accelerating Wei I Turbo- (hopper) ■ supercharger ••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • •~ Regula tor. : · ■ . ■ . • ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ .~ I )~) • ■ , - , . . ~---------- ■ • ■ -·············· • • • LEGEND Line from Tank Return to Tonk Pressure •••• Viscosity Valve Oil Temperature Unit TURBO REGULATOR OIL LINE OMITTED WHEN ELECTRONIC CONTROL IS USED. DIAGRAM OF OIL SYSTEM To Oil Separator Unit To Feathering Pump ;a m "' ~ ;a n ~ m C RESTRICTED OIL DILUTION PROCEDURE CAUTION: 1. Operate engines at 800 to 1000 rpm. 2. Dilute all engines simultaneously with gang bar if indicated oil pressures do not exceed a 10-lb. variation. If this tolerance is exceeded, dilute each engine separately. 3. Maintain oil temperature below 40°C (104°F). 4. Before diluting all engines simultaneously, establish the average indicated pressure. If engines are diluted individually, oil pressure of each must be noted before dilution. 5. Dilute engine oil as follows, for ground temperature as shown: +4° to -26°C (+40° to -15°F) depress dilutio.n switch until a 35% oil pressure reduction is accomplished. -26° to -40°C (-15° to -40°F) depress dilution switch until a 50% pressure reduction is accomplished. 6. It is important to leave dilution switches engaged until propellers cease rotating, so undiluted oil will not be drawn into the engine. 7. Under extremely low temperatures, locally recommended procedure should be followed. 8. On airplanes having oil-operated turbo regulators, operate turbo controls over complete range from low to high blower and return at the minimum rate of 8 seconds per cycle (at least 14 complete movements from low to high blower and return) during the last 2 minutes of the dilution period. 9. During the last 2 minutes of the dilution period depress propeller feathering switch until drop of 400 rpm is observed. Pull out feathering switch and allow rpm to return to normal. Repeat this operation 3 times. NOTE: Overdilution causes sludge and carbon to be loosened in the engine, causing oil screens to collapse and oil lines to clog. This constitutes a fire hazard, and may cause er:-gine failure as well. Auxiliary wing system-2 sets of 3 cells each; total 6 cells; total capacity 450 U. S. Gallons: FUEL SYSTEM The following fuel capacity is provided in the B-24. Main system-4 sets of 3 cells each; total 12 cells; total capacity 2344 U. S. gallons: No. 1 tank-616 U. S. Gallons No. 2 tank-556 U.S. Gallons No. 3 tank-556 U. S. Gallons No. 4 tank-616 U. S. Gallons RESTRICTED Left-hand tank-225 U. S. Gallons Right-hand tank-225 U. S. Gallons Auxiliary bomb bay system-2 separate cells with a total capacity of 782 U. S. gallons: Left-hand tank-391 {J. S. Gallons Right-hand tank-391 U. S. Gallons Fuel System Indicators Pressure-Gages measuring fuel pressure at the carburetors are mounted on the copilot's in strument panel. Quantity-Sight gages, mounted on the for ward face of bulkhead at Station 4.1, left side, 135 RESTRICTED show the quantity of fuel in each of the main systems. In case of damage to the gage vent or supply lines, shut-off valves are provided on top of the gages and at the supply takeoff under the center section, to prevent the loss of fuel. No fuel quantity gages are provided in either auxiliary system. A glass tube between the wing auxiliary selector valve and the transfer pump shows flow of fuel being trans£ erred. Note: Inclinometer on outboard side of fuel gages must read neutral when gages are read. Warning: Aromatic Fuel-Do not use aromatic fuel in the system unless all units carry the markings which designate them as suitable for aromatic fuel. Aromatic-resistant, self-sealing fuel hose can be identified by a single red stripe and correct part number in red. Part number and name of manufacturer are stamped every 12 inches: AR-145, or G-145 Goodyear; AR-184 Goodrich or Boston Woven Hose; AR-250 U.S. Rubber. Aromatic-resistant fuel hose, not self-sealing, can be identified by a white stripe and a broken red line. This hose is used only for connection of aluminum alloy tubing to fuel system lines ( engine-driven fuel pump to carburetor line and fuel cell vent system lines.) All other parts of the systems are marked with an A if suitable for aromatic fuels. Units made of aluminum alloy carry an A painted in red or stamped on the aluminum body. Fuel System 136 RESTRICTED ... Main Fuel System 1. Twelve self-sealing fuel cells in the wing center section. There are 4 sets of 3 cells each. In normal operation each engine is served by one set. 2. Four electrically-driven booster pumps with strainers ( one for each set of cells). They are usually located in the bomb bay just under the cells. 3. Four ·triple-port shut-off valves. On each valve: One port leads to an engine; one port leads to a set of cells; and one port intercon nects to the other 3 valves by way of the cross £ eed connection which allows fuel from any set of cells to serve any engine in an emergency, and permits equalizing flow between systems. These valves are under the front spar in the bomb bay. 4. Four engine-driven pumps with strainers are located one in each nacelle. 5. Four electrically controlled primers are · located one on each carburetor. , 6. Two vent systems for the main fuel sys tems. One of these vents the fuel system serving Engines 1 and 2; namely, the left bank of main fuel cells; the left fuel gauge; and the carbu retors on the left wing. In the same manner the other vent system vents the fuel system serving Engines 3 and 4 on the right wing. · 7. Two vent systems for the wing auxiliary fuel system. One of these vents the 3 cells in the left wing; similarly, the other vents the 3 auxiliary cells in the right wing. 8. One electrically driven transfer pump above the center wing section allows transfer of fuel to a main system through the trans£ er panel. 9. Drain lines for the wing fuel cell compart ments and for the 4 fuel booster pumps empty overboard under the bulkhead at Station 5.0. The 2 shut-off valves are normally open, but must be closed during combat. 10. Main fuel system supply lines and cell interconnecting, or manifold, lines are self sealing. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED Fuel Transfer From One Main System to Another Procedure for trans£ erring fuel from one main system to another is vital information. Illustra tions give examples of fuel transfer methods which are typical of the 3 different arrange ments in the main systems. Airplane serial numbers, recorded on the nameplate on the left of the pilots' pedestal, are an index to the selection of the proper illustration of fuel transfer. Wing Auxiliary Fuel System 1. Six self-sealing fuel cells, 3 in each wing, are located outboard of the wheel wells. 2. Transfer of fuel from the wing auxiliary systems is controlled at 2 panels located above the wing center section. The aft e,r auxiliary selector valve panel contains one 2-way selec tor shut-off ~alve and strainer. This valve se lects the auxiliary system, left or right, from which fuel is to be transferred. In later installa tions the forward or auxiliary transfer panel contains two 2-way selector shut-off valves, the transfer pump, and switch. These valves select the main system, 1, 2, 3, or 4, or any combination thereof, into which fuel is to be transferred. 3. Two venting systems, one for each auxil iary set of 3 cells, right and left. 4. Auxiliary wing cell fuel supply lines are self-sealing. Fuel Transfer-Wing Auxiliary System to Main System Illustrations give examples of fuel transfer methods which are typical of the 2 different arrangements to be found in wing auxiliary systems. The rate of fuel transfer in this system is approximately 5 U.S. gallons per minute, or 300 gallons per hour. In case of emergency, ,should the pump fail, fuel transfer from either auxiliary set of wing cells to the main system can be effected by lowering the opposite wing from 3° to 5°. The rate of fuel flow under this condition is approximately 3 gallons per minute, or 180 gallons per hour. 137 RESTRICTED Control Valve & Tron!lfer Bomb Bay Fuel Cell Pump---- Bomb Bay Auxiliary Fuel System PRECAUTIONS WHEN TRANSFERRING FUEL 1. Know the system for transferring fuel in the particular airplane you are· flying. 2. Start transfer as soon as fuel in main tank is consumed to a point where transfer can be accomplished. This assures you sufficient fuel to return to your base in case of failure of transfer system, improves loading, and reduces fire hazards. 3. Radio equipment and auxiliary hydraulic pumps off during transfer. 4. Warn crew that fuel will be transferred no smoking. 5. At the end of 10 minutes, turn the trans fer pump off, shut off all transfer valves, and determine that fuel is being properly trans ferred before continuing. 138 Bomb Bay Auxiliary Fuel System 1. Two self-sealing fuel cells are provided, one on each side of the catwalk in the forward bomb bay. 2. In later installations a 2-way selector valve and transfer pump are mounted on the catwalk at Station 5.0, and anqther 2-way shutoff drain valve is connected to a T fitting in the cross feed line. Fuel Transfer-Bomb Bay Auxiliary System to Main System Illustrations on the following pages give exam ples of fuel transfer methods which are typical of the 3 different arrangements to be found in bomb bay auxiliary systems. The rate of fuel transfer in this system is approximately 10 U.S. gallons per minute, or 600 gallons per hour. 6. If transferring fuel from bomb bay tanks: a. Remove bomb bay tank cap for inspection. Return cap to proper place before resuming transfer operation. b. One crew member should be on watch in bomb bay at all times when transfer is in progress. At any indication of overflow, bomb bay transfer pump should be stopped and thor ough inspection conducted. 7. Bomb bay doors should be open slightly ( 6 to 8 inches) before and during transfer. 8. Don't attempt to fill more than one main tank at a time as all engines connected to the crossfeed manifold will stop running when the bomb bay tanks are empty and air is introduced into crossfeed manifold. 9. Do not turn on fuel pump switch until selector valves are set; do not change setting of selector valves while fuel pump is on. 10. Do not leave selector valves "ON" or "BOTH ON" after transfer is completed. RESTRICTED ~ m "' -I ~ n -I m C -w "'° FILLING ONE MAIN SYSTEM FROM ANOTHER USING U HOSES WHILE FEEDING FOUR ENGINES ON B-24 AIRPLANES, THROUGH No. 41-11938 EXAMPLE: FUEL TRANSFER FROM No. 4 MAIN SYSTEM TO No. 2 MAIN SYSTEM GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS When system being tilled is within 50 gallons of full, turn main transfer pump Off and disconnect U hoses. Turn pump ON after U hoses are connected MAIN TRANSFER PANEL 0 ~ m "' -I ~ n -I m C ~ 0 ,a m VI -t ,a n -t m C FILLING ONE MAIN SYSTEM FROM ANOTHER WHILE FEEDING FOUR ENGINES ON B-24 AIRPLANES FROM No. 41-23640 TO 42-40917 EXAMPLE: FUEL TRANSFER FROM No. 1 MAIN SYSTEM TO No. 4 MAIN SYSTEM GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS To speed transfer use booster pumps and cross-feed line in conjunction with U hoses. When system being filled is within 50 gallons of full, turn main transfer pump OFF and disconnect hoses. Reset selec tor valves of system being fUled and system being drained to TANK TO ENGINE. When any main system is emptied set its selector valve lo CROSS FEED TO ENGINE and set the selector valves of the three remaining systems to TANK TO ENGINE AND CROSS FEED. To No. 4 Eng. Turn main transfer pump ON after selector valves are set and hoses are connected. CAUTION: Do not fill more than one system al a lime and have radio OFF. To No. 1 Eng. When fuel is low in all systems and it is desired to level tanks, set selector valves of all main systems to TANK TO ENGINE AND CROSSFEED, with booster pumps OFF. As soon as tanks are leveled, turn selectors back to TANK TO ENGINE. l ,a m VI -t ,a n -t m C ,a m V, -I ,a n -I m C -.,::.. - To No. 4 Eng. Tank To Eng. FILLING ONE MAIN SYSTEM FROM ANOTHER USING CROSS FEED WHILE FEEDING FOUR ENGINES ON B-24 AIRPLANES, ON AND AFTER No. 42-40918 EXAMPLE: FUEL TRANSFER FROM No. 1 MAIN SYSTEM TO No. 3 MAIN SYSTEM CD • dooster OFF Tank To Eng. and Cross Feed GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS To No.2 Eng. c) Booster ON When system being filled is within 50 gallons of full, reset selector valves of system being filled and system being drained to TANK TO ENGINE. When any main system is emptied set its selector valve to CROSS FEED TO ENGINE and set the selector valves of three remaining systems to TANK TO ENGINE AND CROSS FEED. When fuel is low in all systems and it is desired to level tanks, set selector valves of all main systems to TANK TO ENGINE AND CROSSFEED, with booster pumps OFF. As soon as tanks are leveled, turn selectors back to TANK TO ENGINE. CAUTION: Do not fill more than one system at a time and have radio Off. To "No. 1 Eng. c) ,a m V, -I ,a n -I m C ::ii, m "' -I ::ii, n -I m 0 Auxiliary Selector Valve Panel FILLING ONE MAIN SYSTEM FROM THE AUXILIARY WING SYSTEMS USING U CONNECTORS WHILE FEEDING FOUR ENGINES ON B-24 AIRPLANES, FROM No. 41-23640 TO No. 42-40917 EXAMPLE: FUEL TRANSFER FROM L. H. AUXILIARY WING SYSTEM TO No. 3 MAIN SYSTEM . R. H. Aux. System Turn pump ON after U hoses are connected and valve is set. L. H. Aux. System GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS When system being filled is within-SO gal- 1 on s of full, turn main transfer pump Off and disconnect U hoses. Turn auxiliary selec tor valve to BOTH Off. ::ii, m "' -I ::ii, n -I m 0 ... .,:ii. w Auxiliary Selector Valve Panel FILLING THE MAIN SYSTEMS FROM THE AUXILIARY WING SYSTEMS WHILE FEEDING FOUR ENGINES ON B-24 AIRPLANES, ON AND AFTER No. 42-40918 EXAMPLE: FUEL TRANSFER FROM BOTH AUXILIARY WING SYSTEMS TO No. 3 AND No. 4 MAIN SYSTEMS R. H. Aux. System L. H. Aux. System Turn auxil· iary pump ON after valves are set. I ON (!) OFF GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS When system being Riled • is within 50 gallons of full, turn auxiliary pump OFF. Turn auxiliary selector valve and auxiliary transfer panel valves OFF. DO NOT CHANGE VALVE S,.E TT ING S WHILE PUMP IS ON. ,a m Cit -I ,a n -I m 0 ;a m "' -t ;a n -t m C :-.__ FILLING ONE MAIN SYSTEM FROM THE BOMB BAY FUEL CELLS USING U HOSES WHILE FEEDING FOUR ENGINES ON B-24 AIRPLANES, FROM No. 41-11587 TO No. 41-24175 EXAMPLE: FUEL TRANSFER FROM BOTH BOMB BAY FUEL CELLS TO No. 2 MAIN SYSTEM GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS When system being filled is within 50 gallons of full, turn both main transfer and bomb bay pump OFF and disconnect hoses. Turn bomb bay selector valve to BOTH OFF. CAUTION: Caps on the bomb bay fuel cells should not be re moved during transfer operations. One crew member should be on guard in the bomb bay at all times during transfer. At any indication of fuel overflow stop bomb bay booster pump and investigate. - I I • l ~ ~ :,-, • ... !- -- Turn main transfer pump and bomb bay booster pump ON after bomb bay selector valve is set and hoses are connected. Bomb Bay Booster Pump ON ;a m "' -t ;a n -t m C FILLING ONE MAIN SYSTEM FROM A BOMB BAY FUEL CELL WHILE FEEDING FOUR ENGINES ON B-24 AIRPLANES, ON AND AFTER No. 42-40918 EXAMPLE: FUEL TRANSFER FROM L. H. BOMB BAY FUEL CELL TO NO. 4 MAIN SYSTEM To No. 4 Eng. Tank To Eng. al'.'ld Cross Feed GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS When system being fllled is within 50 gals. of full, turn bomb bay booster pump OFF. Turn bomb bay shutoff valve to OFF. Turn bomb bay selector valve to BOTH OFF. Turn selector valve of system just filled to • TANK TO ENGINE. CAUTION: DO NOT FILL MORE THAN ONE SYSTEM AT A TIME AND HAVE RADIO OFF. R.H. Bomb Bay Cell Turn Bomb Bay Booster Pump ON .After Valves Are Set Bomb Bay Shutoff Valve Drain To No. 1 Eng. L . .ff. Bomb Bay Cell ;a m "' -t ;a n -t m C FILLING ONE MAIN SYSTEM FROM A BOMB BAY FUEL CELL WHILE FEEDING FOUR ENGINES ON B-24 AIRPLANES, FROM No. 41-24176 TO No. 42-40917 EXAMPLE: fUEL TRANSFER FROM R. H. BOMB BAY FUEL CELL TO No. 1 MAIN SYSTEM To No. 4 Eng. ¢=J GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS When system being fllled is within 50 gals of full, turn bomb bay booster pump OFF. Turn bomb bay selector valve to BOTH OFF. 'rurn selector valve of system just fl·lled to TANK TO ENGINE. CAUTION: DO NOT FILL MORE THAN ONE SYSTEM AT A TIME AND HA VE RADIO OFF. Turn bomb bay booster pump ON after valves are set CAUTION: Caps on the bomb bay cells should not be removed during transfer oper ations. One crew· member should be on guard in the bomb bay during transfer- at any indi cation of fuel overflow slop bomb bay booster pump and investigate thoroughly. Bomb Bay Selector Valve Tank To Eng.and Cross Feed To No. 1 Eng. c) ;a m "' -t ;a n -t m C RESTRICTED HEATING SYSTEMS LEGEND Erq. No. I Fuel Supply Line- Eng. No.2 Fuel 5'.wly Line - Eng. No.3 .Fuel Supply Line -- Exhaust Lines General Two methods of supplying warmth are pro vided in the airplane: fuel-fired heaters and electrically heated clothing. (Also see section on exhaust heat system for late series B-24's -pp. 149-150.) Heaters Stewart-Warner circulating air heaters are pro vided for pilot, copilot, radio operator, bom bardier, and navigator, and are arra~ged in separate systems of source of supply, control, and heater grouping in most aircraft, as shown in the table below. A switch, at the right of the copilot, operates a master solenoid valve which controls Group No. l. A switch at the bombardier's panel serves similarly for Group No. 2. Manually controlled shut-off valves attached to the 3-way headers are just forward of the front spar, right and left, to permit shutting off fuel supply to heaters in case of master solenoid valve failure. , ENGINE NO. 2 SOLENOID SUPPLY VALVE (MAIN) 3-way header (Aux.) GROUP 1 . ENGINE NO. 3 RESTRICTED lndiv. shut-off valve lndiv. shut-off valve lndiv. shut-off valve SOLENOID SUPPLY VALVE (MAIN) 3-way header (Aux.) lndiv. shut-off valve lndiv. shut~off valve lndiv. shut-off valve Pilot Copilot Top Gunner GROUP 2 Radio Operator Bombardier Navigator 147 RESTRICTED If the manifold pressure is reduced below 15" on an engine, there is not sufficient pressure to supply fuel and the heaters supplied by that engine will be extinguished. On later systems, there is in the line between each heater and the header, a solenoid valve, for the control of •that individual heater. The individual solenoid valves are useful only as a means of shutting off one heater while retain ing the use of the remaining units. This may be accomplished by disconnecting · the electrical plug at the solenoid of any selected heating unit. Combustion exhaust fumes are led back to the engine induction systems through asbes tos-protected tubes. There are no valves in the exhaust system. Each heater is equipped with an electric circulating fan which operates from the same control circuits as the master sole noids. Igniters to ignite the fuel mixture are incorporated in each heater and operate auto matically when master switch is turned on. The copilot's switch is a three-position switch; the three positions are "HEATERS ON," "HEATERS OFF," and "DEFROST." With the switch in position to defrost only, the circula tions fans will operate and no heat will be gen erated. The bombardier's switch has only two positions, "ON" and "OFF." To defrost windshields, without heat, turn on the heater switch to defrost and pull out de froster knobs. This deflects air blast into wind shield duct system. Pull out and attach de- 148 £roster hose with the strap clamp mounted at the bottom of the windshield. ' To defrost windshields with heat, turn the heater switch to heat position and pull out de froster knob. This deflects heated air blast into windshield duct system. Pull out and attach defroster hose. To stop defrosting action, push defroster knob in and turn heated off by means of the copilot's switch. Caution: If the heaters start smoking after being shut off, reduce manifold pressure on No. 2 and No. 3 engines to 15" and turn on heaters until smoking has stopped. Then turn off heaters and resume manifold pressure. This action is necessary in case the solenoid valves stick and do not shut off the fuel-air mixture after the electrical system is shut off. This permits the fuel-air mixture to burn with out the fans circulating the air, which will cause the heater oven to overheat and eventually burn out. Smoking will also occur if there is dust on the fins. Note: Turn the heater on before entering ex tremely cold conditions to prevent ·solenoids from freezing up. If the fan stops, check fuses immediately or heating element will overheat and burn out. Heated Clothing Electrically heated flying suits may be plugged in at all crew stations and in the bomb bay. Individual rheostats control temperature. RESTRICTED EXHAUST HEAT SYSTEM IN LATE B-24'S In some late series B-24's, heat exchangers in the engine exhausts provide heat for the cabin, for anti-icing of the wing and empennage lead ing edges, and for defrosting the windshields, nose turret, and top turret. Cabin heat comes from the exhausts of the 2 inboard engines. Air temperature in the sys tem is regulated automatically by a valve which admits cold air to the ducts when the tempera ture rises above pre-set limits. Controls for this heating system include switches on the pilot's control pedestal, manually operated reg isters in the duct outlets, and manually oper ated damper valves in the ducts themselves. Heat for anti-icing the leading edges of the wing center section and the empennage also comes from the inboard engines; the outboard engines provide heat for anti-icing the outer panel leading edges and wingtips. Control switches are on the same panel as the cabin heat switches. Aircraft with this heating system have double plate glass windshields. Warm air for defrosting, supplied through ducts from the main cabin system, is introduced between the 2 panes. The inner panes are removable, and · there is stowage space for them on the left side of the radio compartment. Operation Usually only one cabin heat switch needs to be turned on. With either No. 2 or No. 3 switch on, you can increase heat for the cabin by turning the empennage anti-icing switch off if no icing conditions exist, thereby cutting off hot air flow to the tail and directing more heat to the cabin. Caution: Don't turn empennage switch off if both No. 2 andNo.3switchesareon. To prevent formation of ice on wings, tail and windshields, turn on all cabin heat and anti icing switches, including the empennage switch, RESTRICTED RESTRICTED as soon as icing conditions are anticipated and before ice starts to form. Use of Manually Operated Dampers The damper controlling the 2 windshield ducts is over the forward end of the radio operator's table on the aft face of the armor plate behind the copilot's seat. Open this damper only to . prevent formation of ice on the windshields. The damper controlling the main heater duct on the lower left hand side of the cabin is on the forward bulkhead of the left hand bomb bay, near the top. The damper for the right hand main cabin heater duct is on the aft bulk head of the radio operator's compartment near the floor on the right side. Don't close these dampers except to divert more hot air to wind shield defrosters. Control cabin heat exclu sively with the outlet registers and with No. 2 and No. 3 switches. The damper which regulates the top turret defroster is on the aft bulkhead of the radio operator's compartment, above the right hand main duct damper. Don't open the defroster damper except to defrost top turret or com partment side windows. Dampers for the ducts in the bombardier's compartment are on the forward end of the copilot's duct, in the nose compartment near navigator's table. Don't open these dampers except when necessary. A warning light on the pilot's ped estal will indicate the pr.esence of carbon monoxide in the cabin air if one of the heat exchangers should leak. A button near the warning light re-sets the warning light relay when the danger of carbon monoxide· is ended. Turn off cabin heat switches (either No. 2 or No. 3) immediately if the warning light goes on. Don't use the cabin heat system unless the monoxide detector is installed and known to be working properly. 149 ... UI 0 ~ ;ii:, m "' -t ;ii:, n -t m CJ ...-JASTRODOME FLEXIBLE "-.._!DEFROSTER DUCT CONTROL DAMPERS FLEXIBLE DEFROSTER DUCT DETAIL OF FRESH AIR INTAKE CONTROL UNIT(FULTON-SYLPHON) RAM AIR (OIL COOLER)SCOOP OUTSIDE RAM AIR INTAKE DUCT EXHAUST INTAKE HEAT TAKE-OFF DUCT(RAM AIR) DETAIL OF HEAT EXCHANGER AND AfR CIRCULATION EXHAUST HEAT SYSTEM IN SOME LATE B·24'S ;ii:, m "' -t ;ii:, n -t m 0 ANTI-ICERS, DE-ICERS AND DEFROSTERS The problem of icing and weather flying is too big a subject for this book, which is restricted in its scope to specific problems of the °13-24. • That does not relieve the B-24 pilot of the obligation to know weather flying and to know icing problems before attempting flights in which he may have to use his anti-icing and de-icing equipment. Intelligent use of anti-icing and de-icing equipment requires knowledge of the various kinds of ice, when to stay at your altitude, when to ascend and when to descend, and the circumstances under which your plane · is likely to ice up. You'll find information on this subject in P. I. F., under "Cold Weather Operation" i.n the T. 0. for the B-24, in "Instru ment Flying in Weather," and in training films. Don't miss an opportunity to learn all you can about icing and weather flying. In certain thea ters much larger losses are charged to weather than to enemy action. Your gunners can't drive off the weather. Warning: The pilot who takes off ·v~"ithout complete information on icing levels, relative saturation, and the probability of encountering ice is his own worst enemy. The sky makes no allowances for incompetence. If you can't read the weather charts, ask the weather officer. The government pays him a salary for answer ing your questions. Remember that the weather that usually comes with ice brings other distraction: static noises, strong possibility of intermittent radio failure, increased fuel consumption under an icing load, and instrument flying conditions. You get uneasy and want to descend or mill around and lose your way. Usually it is better either to do a 180° turn or fly out your ETA if you have adequate fuel. Don't get panicky. Know your weather and know your icing equipment. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED Anti-icers and De-icers Distinguished Distinguish between these 2 types of equip ment. One will prevent icing but has very lim ited or no effect in removing ice. The other will remove ice. Anti-icers should be started before ice forms. De-icers are more effective after ice has formed hard enough so it will crack off. SLINGER RING DETAIL Propeller Anti-Icing System It is most important to anticipate propeller icing by knowing the condition of the atmos phere you are flying through. Remember this is anti-icing equipment. Slinger rings distribute fluid to spread a protective film over the blades so ice won't form. The film will keep ice off when it won't take it off. Therefore, anticipate ice . . You can tell the propellers are icing up if you note spotty discoloration on them or if small pieces of ice are thrown off against the fuselage. Immediately increase the flow of fluid enough to stop further icing. But keep in mind the probable length of time you will need pro peller anti-icing and conserve fluid accordingly. Equipment Ice prevention fluid, isopropyl alcohol, is sup plied to the slinger rings on each propeller by 2 pumps taking suction from a reservoir tank. On early airplanes this is a 6-gallon tank located 151 RESTRICTED under the flight deck and can be filled in flight. On later airplanes it is a 21-gallon tank located on the half deck, refillable only from outside the fuselage. Plug valves, normally safetied open, permit shut-off from tank to either pump. Valves are located directly under the 6-gallon tank, and on the 21-gallon tank installation shut-off valves are located on the aft face of bulkhead at Station 4.1 high in the bomb bay, right side. A single rheostat on the instrument panel simultaneously controls the 2 electric pumps. A quantity gage is on top of the tanks. The rheostat flow control is marked in gallons per hour showing total flow for all 4 engines. Operation: To start motor turn the rheostat to the extreme right. This will cause pumps to give maximum output and will clean the lines out. Leave in this position about 2 minutes to fill tubing and start the flow of the anti-icing liquid to propellers. Then adjust rheostats to provide the minimum amount of fluid necessary to keep the propellers free of ice. A flow of 1 to 2 gallons per hour will take care of light to moderate ice. Wing and Empennage De-icing: You can see the ice forming on wing leading edges. Usually it will start as a narrow whHe line along the cen ter of the de-icing boot and gradually widen. Avoid using boots until ice is hard enough to crack off as the boots inflate. Don't allow ice to build back beyond the effective boot area, or when boots crack it loose a sharp edge of ice will remain at the edge of the boot. Then addi tional ice will build on this, creating burble and destroying lift. The B-24 will carry a good load of ice if necessary, but remember you are sup ported by a highly efficient wing. Anything that disturbs its normal lift characteristics is not good. Normally.rime ice and clear ice will' crack off immediately when the de-icer boots start to operate. However, you may encounter ice which seems rubber-like; it will appear to stretch instead of crack when the boot starts to operate. Watch closely. If the ice doesn't crack as the boots start to operate, turn de-icers off and wait for the ice to harden; otherwise a hol low space will be formed beneath the ice and 152 boots will inflate without removing it. It is im portant to know exactly how de-icing equip ment works. Equipment: De-icing is accomplished by rubber shoes on leading edges of wings and stabilizer. The pressure side of engine-operated vacuum pumps on engine No. 1 and engine No. 2 furnish air for inflation. The suction side of either pump furnishes suction for deflation; the suction side of the other pump furnishes suction for the vacuum-operated instruments. In case of failure of either pump, the remain ing pump will furnish sufficient pressure for • inflation. In such an emergency, be sure that the vacuum selector valve handle, on the for ward face of Station 4.1, is set so that the instru ments receive the vacuum from the pump which is operating. This means that the boots will have to depend on external air pressure for deflation. A horizontal lever on the copilot's panel is cable-connected to a control valve high on the front spar in the bomb bay. Until this valve is opened, the pressure from both pumps escapes overboard and the suction from one engine pump keeps the boots deflated. When the valve is opened, pressure is distributed to and inflates the boots in a set order of sequence. In case the cable between the control lever and the valve in the bomb bay should break or become dis connected, valve-in the bomb bay can be moved by hand to operate boots. A suction gage on pilot's panel shows vacuum level in system for instruments only. It gives no indication of de icer suction. Windshield Anti-icing System: Some B-24 air planes are equipped with hand pumps which force a spray of isopropyl alcohol on the wind shields to prevent ice formation. On these in stallations, 2 separate tubes from the reservoir deliver fluid, one to the copilot's hand pump, outboard of his seat, and the other to the boITu bardier's hand pump on the right side of his _windshield. Two positic;ms, left and right, are indicated on the copilot's hand pump to direct the fluid, as desired, to either pil~t's windshield. This selection is made by pressing the handle down. Note that this is an anti-icing fluid. Use as the first suspicion of windshield icing when RESTRICTED ice starts to form in the corners of windshield. It is lots easier to keep ice from forming than to get rid of it. The film deposited by the fluid keeps ice from forming. Defrosters: The bombardier's and pilots' heaters are fitted with flexible defroster ducts to direct warm air to bombardier's sighting window and to pilots' windshields. On some aircraft the nav igator's heater is similarly equipped for defrost ing the astrodome. On th~ pilots' heaters, push pull Ahrens controls on instrument panel; and on the bombardier's and navigator's heaters, hand operated shutters, permit use of heaters for heating or for defrosting. Pitot Heater: Your airspeed indicator reacts to the pressure of incoming air in the pitot tubes. If moisture gets in the tube and freezes, or forms over the outside, your airspeed will ap pear to be falling off rapidly when in reality it is the same as before. Your first thought before entering clouds RESTRICTED RESTRICTED DIAGRAM OF PITOT TUBE HEATER should be to turn on your pitot heaters, espe cially when the temperature is near 0°C. This · will keep ice from fo;rming. Warm, wet air can also block off your airspeed indication during a heavy rain. Use the pitot heater. Pilots have been known to keep adding more and more power trying to maintain altitude and airspeed, flying · for several hours at dangerously high power, when nothing was wrong except a little ice in the pitot head. 153 RESTRICTED o·xvGE·N SYSTEM There are 2 types of oxygen supply systems in use: The constant flow and the demand system. Constant Flow-On ships up to 42-40217 in clusive. This type uses either AS or AS-A masks. The mask connects to the regulator with a long, . slender hose. Small leaks around the mask are relatively unimportant in this type because ·of the constant flow of oxygen from the tank through the regulator. With this steady flow the length of the hose is immaterial, as no air cush ion can back up in the hose to the regulator. Demand System-On No. 42-40218 and sub sequent airplanes. This type uses either A9, AlO, AlO-R, or B14 masks. The mask connects to the regulator by a short, stubby hose. This system provides the proper amount of oxygen at any altitude. Operational Precautions Before Flight: 1. Check pressure in oxygen cylinders. Cyl inders should be filled to 450 lb. sq. in.; their pressure will drop to approximately 400 lb. sq. in. when they cool. 2. Check flow of oxygen through regulators and masks. Wherever possible, have oxygen officer on ground check equipment. 3. Be certain hose is tight at regulator outlet collar .. 4. Be certain male end of rapid disconnect fitting rubber gasket is in place. 5. Mask should fit airtight, and when so fitted it should be worn only by the individual for whom it was adjusted. 6.· Clip hose, by means of the spring clip, to 154 clothing or to parachute harness, not too far below chin. 7. Check pressure gage. During Flight: 1. To check oxygen flow to mask from reg ulator in the constant-flow type pinch hose lightly several times. A hiss will indicate that oxygen is flowing. 2. At altitudes over 34,000 feet the reservoir bag in the constant flow should not collapse. This can be checked by holding hand loosely around reservoir bag while breathing nor mally. Quick or deep breaths will collapse bag. Be careful not to collapse bag while making this check. 3. Type AS and AS-A masks can be freed of ice formation by squeezing air outlets on cheeks in mask. 4. In demand system, watch the flow indica tor to make sure you are getting oxygen. After Flight: 1. Wipe mask dry, or if possible, wash with soap and water and dry thoroughly. 2. Do not lend your mask, as strap adjust ments may be altered by someone else. 3. Inspect for cracks and leaks in face piece. Safety Measur~s: 1. Normally, keep the regulator on the de mand system with the auto-mix turned "ON." 2. Use oxygen on all flights above 10,000 feet. · 3. Each crew member should have available one walk-around bottle. The bottle should be tested before the airplane leaves the ground. If it is necessary for a crew member to leave his station the bottle can be quickly attached to the oxygen mask. The bottle can be refilled from the ship's regular supply. 4. Memorize location of bailout bottles. These bottles are used, when abandoning ship, as an oxygen supply until reaching an altitude whece oxygen is not necessary. 5. In night flying use oxygen all the time to preserve maximum efficiency of night vision. RESTRICTED :::ia m U') .... :::ia n .... m C Bombardier 's Oxygozn Equipment No,e Turret Oxygen Equipment LEGEND - Distribution Lines - Filler Lines OXYGEN SYSTEM - 24 BOTTLE :::ia m U') .... :::ia n .... m C RESTRICTED 6. Crew members are warned against eating gas-forming foods or drinking alcoholic bever ages within 24 hours before high altitude flying. Gas expands at high altitudes. Abdominal cramps will result, retarding mental alertness and reducing physical fitnesf.. 7. The amount of oxygen needed by each in dividual varies. Active crew members require more oxygen than those at rest. The most com mon symptoms which indicate a lack of oxygen at high altitude are: a. The body feels extremely cold or warm (sweating may occur). b. Unusual exhilaration. c. Lassitude and sleepiness. d. Mind not alert. 8. Lack of oxygen at first is a deceiver; it gives a false sense of exhilaration and self confidence. Do not wait until the last minute to turn on the oxygen. If at any time a crew member is doubtful whether he is receiving enough oxygen, a greater amount should be turned on. If the additional oxygen does not help, a nearby crew member should be notified. 9. If a crew member becomes unconscious from lack of oxygen: . a. When above 25,000 feet, descend to a lower altitude, if possible. b. On constant-flow system open regulator to full flow. On demand system, open emergency valve on regulator. 10. If ship's oxygen supply falls below 100 lb. sq. in., descend immediately to altitude where oxygen is not needed. EQUIPMENT Constant-Flow Type Ten G-1 oxygen cylinders are used on airplanes up to 41-11938 (5 in each wing outboard of the wheel wells). Eighteen G-1 cylinders are used on airplanes 41-23640 to 42-40217 inclusive. These are located over the wing center section and around the bottom turret well. Both the 10 and 18-cylinder systems have, in addition, 2 type D-2 cylinders attached to the under side of the top gunner's seat. For both systems a manually operated flow regulator is at each outlet. 156 Constant-flow Type Mask Oxygen Indicators Regulator dials marked in thousands of feet are located at each outlet. When the regulator is set at the correct flying altitude, an attached flow dial indicates amount of flow. Location of Controls Oxygen Outlets-At each crew station and at right of flight deck hatch in bomb bay. Main Shut-Off Valve-On rear spar to right of center line. Available from radio compart ment over rear bomb bay. Demand Type Cylinders-This system has 9 groups of cylin ders with a demand regulator at each crew station: 22 oxygen cylinders of type G-1 in 8 groups and 2 cylinders of type D-2 in the 9th group. The latter, for the top gunner, is secured to the underside of his seat. The 2 D-2 cylin ders are recharged from the radio operator's main line, or in an emergency, from any group. One adapter is installed on the top turret line between the two cylinders. These groups provide at least 2 cylinders' supply for each man ( a total of approximately 9 hours' supply for a crew of 10) at 30,000 feet. Check valves are installed to prevent loss of oxygen in the event a cylinder or line is de stroyed by gunfire. RESTRICTED ~ m "' -I ~ n -I m C Bombardiers Regulator & Outlet Oxygen Filler Line ,to Manifolds Oxygen Supply Line to Regulators Oxygen Lines between Botlles & Manifolds I Bottle on Side Pane l OXYGEN SYSTEM - 18 BOTTLE ~ m "' -I ~ n -I m t:J RESTRICTED Demand-type oxygen mask. Note the way prongs on the quick-disconnect fitting are pried apart. Regulator Panel Locations There are now 13 outlets in place of 11 formerly used. The A-12 regulator is mounted on a panel at each crew station as follows: Forward fuselage compartment: One on the left side of the nose compartment for the nose gunner (B-24J). One on the right side of the nose compart ment for the bombardier. One on the right side of the nose compart ment for the navigator. Two under the instrument panel, one at each end, for the pilot and copilot. One aft and above the radio operator's table. One on side of the top turret gunner's seat. One on the right hand side, aft of bulkhead at Station 4.1 in the bomb bay, generally used by the engineer. Aft fuselage compartment: One on the left side between Stations 6.1 and 6.2 for bottom turret operator. One on the left side between Stations 7 .3 and 7.4 for the camera operator. Two between Stations 7 .2 and 7 .3, one on each side, for side gunners. One just forward of Station 9.2 on the right side for the rear turret gunner. 158 Type K-1 Pressure Gauge-The oxygen pres sure gage indicates the pressure of the avail able oxygen in the supply cylinders. The dial is calibrated to indicate pounds per square inch pressure. Satisfactory operation requires a pressur~ from 100 lb. sq. in. minimum to 450 lb. sq. in. maximum. Type A-1 Oxyg~n Flow Indicator-The A-1 type indicator, on the panel to the left of the pressure gage, is connected directly into the high-pressure oxygen flow. When oxygen passes through it to the gage, a red ball floats to the top of the indicator. Type A-1, however, requires several extra fittings from which leaks are more apt to occur. Type A-3 Oxygen Flow Indicator-This type indicator is connected to the regulator itself. It is a pressure indicating instrument actuated by the change of pressure. It has a blinker RESTRICTED which opens when the person wearing the mask inhales. The A-3 indicator is in use on airplane 42-72765 and subsequent ships. Moving the valve lever to the Auto-Mix "ON" position. Type A-12 Regulator-The A-12 regulator (Pio neer Type 2850-Al) has been developed for use in high altitude flying and automatically deliv ers the proper mixture of air and oxygen to sustain life in the sub-stratosphere. It conserves the available supply of oxygen by furnishing only the amount of oxygen needed at any alti tu_de. The regulator consists of the following mechanisms: A manual valve shuts off the air when a flow of pure oxygen is required. The valve is oper ated by a lever on the side of the case and is marked Auto-Mix "ON" and "OFF." (Regu lators of recent issue may be marked "NOR MAL OXYGEN" instead of "ON," and "100% OXYGEN" instead of "OFF.") Note: The "ON" ("NORMAL OXYGEN") position is used for normal flying operation. A bypass manually operated emergency valve on the oxygen intake, at the bottom of the regulator, permits a steady flow of oxygen when needed. A pressure reducer controls the oxygen tank pressure to about 40-60 lb. sq. in. so that the action of the demand valve is unaffected by changes of the tank pressure. A check valve on the air inlet prevents the escape of oxygen when exhaling. System Filler Valve-The system filler valve is located on the outside of the airplane (left lower side) between Stations 6.1 and 6.2, and the whole system can be filled through this intake valve. It is in a closed box behind a cover plate door in the skin, free from contact with oil, grease, or foreign matter. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED ~,, Because there is no oxy gen system filler relief valve, under no circumstances should the A-12 reg ulator be installed on an oxygen cyl inder of greater than 500 lb. sq. in. capacity. Two adapters are installed in a stowage bag attached on the inside of the plate door. One adapter is used for charging the system with British equipment, the other when using Amer ican equipment. A card provides instructions for filling the system and for the correct use of the adapters. Top Turret Filler Valve-A new shield has been installed over the filler valve of the top turret oxygen tanks. This shield is made of metal; a small plate giving filling instructions is on the end. The location of the turret guns above this valve constitutes a definite hazard unless pro tection against the possibility of excess oil and grease from the guns coming in contact with the valve is provided. This change took place on airplane No. 42-40786 and subsequent air craft. Under no conditions allow any oil or grease to come in contact with any oxygen equipment. Carbon Monoxide Some recent B-24's have a red warning light on the instrument panel to indicate the pres ence of carbon monoxide in the cabin. (See Ex haust Heating, Page 149.) If this warning light goes on, protection against the carbon mon oxide can be gained in one of two ways: By turning off the heater, and thus removing the source of the gas, or by having all crew mem bers don their oxygen masks, with the Auto Mix turned to the "OFF" ("100% OXYGEN") position. Temperature or other factors may make turning off the heater inadvisable, but the use of pure oxygen is a sure safeguard against atmospheric contaminajion. 159 RESTRICTED [60 VENTILATING SYSTEM Special ventilation is provided only for the pilot, copilot, and radio operator. In early model airplanes the bombardier receives fresh air through a manually rotated slotted disc in the hand hole normally used to clean the bombsight window. The pilot and copilot receive a direct blast of fresh air through ducts connected to the left and right pitot-static tubes respectively. Manually rotated ball and socket ventilators, at the outboard ends of the instrument panel, control fresh air supply. The flight compartment receives fresh air through an intake duct through a "Y" to manually controlled anemostat diffusers high on the fuselage, right and left at Station 3.2. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED THE C-1 AUTO PILOT - .... . . "'· · .. ,· . .... , .. ,. ..... · ; ·. The C-1 autopilot is an electromechanical robot which automatically controls the airplane in straight and level flight, or maneuvers the airplane in response to the fingertip control of the human pilot or bombardier. Actually, the autopilot works in much the same way as the human pilot in maintaining straight and level flight, in making corrections necessary to hold a given course and altitude, and in applying the nec~ssary pressure on the controls to turns, banks, etc. The difference is that the autopilot acts instantaneously and with a precision that is not humanly possible. The precision of even the most skillful hu man pilot is limited by his own reaction time, i.e., the interval between his perception of a certain condition and his action to correct or control it. Reaction time itself is governed by such human fallibilities as fatigue, inability to detect errors the instant they occur, errors in judgment and muscle coordination. The autopilot, on the other hand, detects flight deviations the instant they occur, and just as instantaneously operates the controls to RESTRICTED correct the deviation. Properly adjusted, the autopilot will neither overcontrol nor under control the airplane, but will keep it flying straight and level with all 3 control surfaces operating in full coordination. How It Works The C-1 autopilot consists of various separate units electrically 1.nterconnected to operate as a · system. The operation of these units is ex plained in detail in AN-11-60AA-l. A general over-all understanding of their functions and relation to each other can be acquired by studying the accompanying illustration. Assume that the airplane in the illustration is flying straight and level and that the autopilot is at work. Suddenly turbulent air turns the airplane away from its established heading. The gyro operated directional stabilizer (1) in the bom bardier's compartment detects this deviation and moves the directional panel ( 4) to one side or the other, depending upon the direction of the deviation. 161 RESTRICTED The directional panel contains 2 electrical devices, the banking pot (5) and the rudder pick-up pot (6), which send signals to the aileron and rudder section of the amplifier (16) whenever the directional panel is operated. These signals are amplified and converted (by means of magnetic switches or relays) into electrical .impulses which cause the aileron and rudder Servo units (15 and 18) to operate the ailerons and rudder of the airplane in the proper direction and amount to turn the air plane back to its original heading. Similarly, if the nose of the airplane drops, the vertical flight gyro (10) detects the vertical 162 IESTRICTED deviation and operates the elevator pick-up pot (11) which sends an electrical signal t Approach and Touchdown Pilot determines direction of approach well in advance. Touchdown parallel to lines of crests and troughs in winds up to 35 mph. Ditch into wind only if wind is over 35 mph or if there are no swells. Use flaps in proportion to power available to obtain minimum safe forward speed with minimum rate of descent. In every case try to ditch while power is still available. Touchdown in a normal landing attitude. Se vere decelerations and several impacts may be expected, so warn your crew not to move until the airplane has come to rest. Foam streaks on water . ....... 30 to 40 mph Spray from crests . ............ 40 to 50 mph 215 RESTRICTED Procedure After Landing When the airplane has come to rest, engineer will pull releases on life rafts. Exits will be made as follows: Pilot: exits through flight deck hatch, goes to left life raft. Copilot: exits through flight deck hatch, goes to right life raft. Navigator: exits through flight deck hatch, goes to left life raft. Engineer: exits through flight deck hatch, goes to right life raft. Radio Ope1·ator: Exits through flight deck hatch, goes to left life raft. Right Waist Gunner: exits through rear hatch, goes to right life raft. Belly Gunner: exits through rear hatch, goes to left life raft. Bombardier: exits through rear hatch, goes to right life raft. Left Waist Gunner: exits through rear hatch, goes to left life raft. Tail Gunner: exits through rear hatch, goes to left life raft. 216 Pilot and copilot will take command each of his life raft, call roll, and check survival equip ment if time permits before life rafts are cut loose from the airplane. Note: If time and circumstances permit, take out the frequency meter and be sure to keep it dry. By attaching antenna from the Gibson Girl emergency radio to frequency meter, it can be operated as an efficient receiver to provide ! way communication for several hours. The Time Element Speed is important, but so is procedure. Give first attention to injured persons. Don't leave necessary equipment behind or you will face starvation and have no means of signaling for help. Drill to get maximum teamwork. Survival Pilot should study P.I.F. and survival booklets and instruct crew so all will know how to make the most of life raft equipment, how to signal, and how to survive on the sea. RESTRICTED Fl RES ENGINE FIRE ON GROUND If fire occurs as engine is starting, keep engine running in an effort to blow out fire, or to suck fire into the induction system. If fire persists, or engine does not start: Pilot will: 1. Give command "Extinguish fire in No. engine." 2. Place throttle in full open position. 3. Put mixture controls in "IDLE CUT OFF." Copilot will: 1: Turn off fuel booster pump. 2. Turn off all engine ignition switches to protect ground personnel. 3. Place carbon dioxide (CO2) selector valve in position for engine affected. 4. Pull fire extinguisher release handle if fireman standing by cannot control fire. 5. Pull release handle, opening remaining CO2 bottle, if fire persists. Engineer will: 1. Turn off fuel selector valve of affected engine. 2. Obtain CO2 bottle from flight deck and assist fireman standing by for starting engines. Fireman will: 1. Direct CO2 at base of fire. When fire in accessory compartment resists other means of RESTRICTED RESTRICTED control, open the starter access door and direct CO2 nozzle toward base of flame, if possible. Do not risk personal injury by attacking fire before propellers are stopped or by attacking fire from top of wing or nacelle; heat and flame rise. Radioman will: 1. Stand by to aid in determining source of trouble and correcting it. • ELECTRICAL FIRE ON GROUND Pilot will: 1. Give command "Extinguish electrical fire in ... {location)." 2. Stop engines by placing mixture controls in "IDLE CUT-OFF." Copilot will: 1. Place battery and main line switch in "OFF" position. 2. Turn off fuel booster pump. Engineer will: 1. Determine that all sources of electnca1 power are off, including generators, auxiliary power unit or battery cart. 2. Turn valve off on sight fuel gauge~. 3. Proceed to scene of fire with CO2 bottle from flight deck and direct same at base of fire. Radioman will: 1. Stand by to aid in determining source ot trouble and correcting it. ' Note: If fire persists, copilot will leave air plane to summon outside aid. ~-- · "\ OTHER FIRES ON GROUND • Pilot will: 1. Give command "Extinguish fire in . . . (location)." 2. Stop engines by placing mixture controls in "IDLE CUT-OFF." 217 RESTRICTED Copilot will: 1. Turn booster pumps off. 2. Turn main line switch off. 3. Proceed to scene of fire with CO2 bottle from flight deck and direct same at base of fire. Engineer will: 1. Turn fuel selector valves and fuel sight gauge valve off. 2. Obtain second CO2 bottle from rear of air plane and aid copilot in extinguishing fire. Radioman will: 1. Contact local control tower and request aid of fire truck, upon pilot's orders. 2. Go to scene of fire to assist in moving cargo or rendering other aid. Note: If fire persists, copilot will leave air plane to summon outside aid. ENGINE FIRE IN AIR Pilot will: 1. Give command "Extinguish fire in No. engine." 2. Order engineer to turn off fuel selector valve. . 3. Feather propeller of affected engine and place mixture control in "IDLE CUT-OFF" when fuel in lines has been exhausted and fuel pressure has dropped to zero. 4. Warn crew to be ready to bail out if nec essary. Copilot will: 1. Open cowl flaps and check booster pump in "OFF" position. 2. Place selector valve of engine fire extin guisher (panel on flight deck to right of co pilot's seat) to position for engine affected (if CO2 system is aboard). Other selector valve in "OFF" position. 218 3. Pull the CO2 release valve handle of one bottle. 4. Pull secm1d release handle, opening re maining CO2 bottle, if fire persists. Engineer will: 1. Immediately place fuel selector valve in "OFF" position for engine affected. 2. Open bailout hatches if condition is seri., ous. Navigator will: 1. Determine location of airplane at time of fire if distress signals are to be sent. Radioman will: 1. Stand by to send distress messages. ELECTRICAL FIRES IN AIR Pilot will: 1. Give command "Extinguish electrical fire in ... (location)." 2. Warn crew to be ready to bail out if necessary. Copilot will: 1. Place battery switches in "OFF" position (not the main line). Note: No lights or engine . instruments will operate under this condition. Flashlights must be kept on hand at all times during night flights. Engineer will: 1. Place all generator switches in "OFF" position. 2. Make certain auxiliary power unit is off. 3. Obtain CO2 hand fire extinguisher and di rect it at base of fire. Navigator will: 1. Assist engineer at location of fire . Radioman will: 1. Assist engineer at location of fire. OTHER FIRES IN AIR Pilot will: 1. Give command "Extinguish fire in . . . (location)." 2. Warn crew to be ready to bail out if nec essary. Copilot will: 1. Turn off all heater switches and valves. 2. Proceed with flight engineer to scene of RESTRICTED fire, obtaining if possible, second CO2 bottle from rear of airplane. Engineer will: 1. Proceed to scene of fire with CO2 bottle from flight deck. 2. Open escape hatches if condition is seri ous enough to prepare to abandon plane. Navigator will: 1. Determine location of aircraft at time of fire if distress signals are to be sent. 2. Act as liaison between crew members, etc. Radioman will: 1. Stand by to send distress messages. 2. Assist engineer at scene of fire with pilot's permission. EFFECTS OF CARBON DIOXIDE AND CARBON TETRACHLORIDE FUMES Carbon Dioxide Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is a non-poisonous gas and breathing it will not adversely affect a hu man being either at the time it is inhaled or afterwards. If the concentration of CO2 gas is high enough, it will have a smothering effect, through the exclusion of oxygen, but the quan tity of carbon dioxide gas contained in a hand extinguisher installed in aircraft is not_sufficient to raise the concentration in an airplane cabin to this point. Carbon Tetrachloride Carbon tetrachloride is a volatile fluid, the gases of which when inhaled in large amounts act as an anesthetic, causing drowsiness, dizzi ness, headache, excitement, anesthesia, or sleep. One or more of these symptoms may occur. If small doses of the fumes should be breathed in over a period of time the first probable effect would be drowsiness followed by sleep or per haps headache and nausea. If any odor of car hon tetrachloride is detect ed while flying, an investigation to determine its source should be made immediately. If it is found that a fire extinguisher is leaking, it should be corrected at once or the extinguisher should be placed where it will not leak in the cabin. Caution: Carbon tetrachloride is poisonous if taken internally. Even ¼ of a teaspoonful RESTRICTED RESTRICTED may prove fatal. Symptoms of poisoning do not appear for several days after the fluid is taken into the stomach, thus giving a false sense of security. Anyone who accidentally ingests some of the fluid should report to the surgeon imme diately for advice and necessary treatment. Warning: In the presence of a flame, carbon tetrachloride produces a poisonous gas. When sprayed on a fire, carbon tetrachloride produces phosgene, one of the poisonous gases used dur ing World War I. Inhaling even a small amount under such conditions may produce harmful effects and, if a sufficient quantity· is taken into the lung, the result may be fatal. A void br~ath ing the fumes when using the fluid on a fire. FIRE EXTINGUISHER SYSTEM Engine Fire Extinguisher CO2 There are 2 panels on the floor outboard of the copilot. Each panel has a 2-way engine _selector valve by means of which the gas can be di rected to either of 2 engines,, and a pull handle which opens the flow from the CO2 cylinders. Either or both CO2 ·cylinders may be used to discharge through either panel. Thus, when one cylinder is exhausted, the other cylinder may be used as a source of supply for any engine. A perforated tubing ring around the engine nacelle discharges CO2 into the engine area. Note: The 2 engine system bottles will empty overboard if prematurely discharged by built up pressure. A break in the red seal in the skin on the right side of the nose is then visible from the outside only at Station 3.0. Make sure the safety wire on the pull handle is unbroken. Hand Extinguishers Inside-On aircraft up through 42-40137, one CO2 bottle is behind the pilot and one is at Station 6.0. From 42-40138 through 42-72864, another CO2 bottle is added at Station 1.0 above navigator's map case. From 42-72865 and on, only one CO2 bottle is provided, located be hind the pilot. Two carbon tetrachloride hand extinguish ers are available from the outside through easily recognizable red doors and from the in side through zipper coverings. One is on the left side of the fuselage near the jack pad, and the other on the right side aft of the bomb bay. 219 RESTRICTED Engine Fire Extinguisher System-Prior to B-24D 42-40393 220 RESTRICTED FLARES AND PYROTECHNICS Flares Flare ejector tube is located on the left of the center line of the airplane immediately forward of entrance door, between Stations 7.2 and 7.3. To Load a Flare Move operating handle downward. This rotates cam so that flare can enter tube. Insert the flare to the proper po::;ition where cam enters the slot in the side of the flare casing. Connect the flare safety to the fish line on reel. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED • To Eiect a Flare The flare tube is fitted with 2 controls; one a toggle handle located on the inboard side of the tube · which opens the door in the bottom of the fuselage uncovering the flare tube, and the second a handle located on the aft side of the flare tube which is the flare handle. Pyrotechnics The pyrotechnic installation located on the left side of flight deck between Stations 3.0 and 4.0 consists of: 1 Type M-2 signal pistol 1 Type A-1 portable signal container 9 Type M-10, M-11 signals 1 Type A-1 holder, pyrotechnic pistol On B-24D aircraft Serial No. 41-23640 and on, stowage has been changed to the rear compart ment, right side, between Stations 7.4 and 7 .5. 221 RESTRICTED Night fl:ying the B-24 is very much like day fly ing because in each case you fly the airplane very largely by reference to instruments. Dif ficulties in almost every case are traceable to failure on the part of the airplane commander to make allowances for the fact that the sun doesn't shine at night. You must faithfully per form all procedures necessary in day flying plus others made necessary by the fact that it is dark. Following is a list of practical suggestions that make night flying easier and safer. 222 Night Inspection Don't neglect your inspection of the airplane and crew. Trouble at night is double trouble. Perform your exterior inspection with a flash light and with extra care. There is a greater RESTRICTED ::a m "' -t ::a n -t m C TWO NAVIGATION LIGHTS- RED ~ SEVEN BLUE FORMATION LIGHTS BOMB RELEASE LIGHT DIRECTLY UNDER TURRET AMBER- RED -GREEN TWO WHITE TAIL LIGHTS ONE OUTBOARD OF EACH VERTICAL TAIL FIN WHITE LIGHT GOES ON WHEN THE BOMB DOORS HAVE BEEN FULLY OPENED RED GOES ON DURING BOMB RELEASE PERIOD TWO NAVIGATION LIGHTS-GREEN ::a m "' -t ::a n -t m C RESTRICTED chance that the engineer may have missed something. Make sure the crew is fully and properly equipped. Make it an ironclad rule to have an extra flashlight aboard with extra bat teries and bulbs. While you are making the exterior inspec tion, have the engineer turn on the master switch, battery selector switches, and the radio operator's cockpit light. Then you can use com partment light to aid the interior inspection. Remember that a surplus supply of fuel and oxygen is doubly important at night when your flight can be unexpectedly prolonged because of navigation or weather difficulties. Always specifically question the radio oper ator to make certain that radio equipment is in top condition. Radio failure at night is a serious hazard. Checklist Use the checklist. It's easier to overlook some thing at night than in the daytime because even the best light casts shadows and gives the cock pit a different appearance. Instrument Panel Lights Two different types of lights are used to illum inate the instrument panels of B-24's: the tube type and spotlight-type fluorescents. The spot light type uses direct current (DC) and can be turned on as soon as you are seated. The tube type uses alternating current (AC) and must be turned on after AC power is on, just before starting engines. In each case there are 4 panel lights equipped with individual rheostat control and with filters which should be adjusted for minimum glare and maximum fluorescent il lumination. Proper adjustment of filters will greatly increase the ease and speed with which you can read instruments. After your AC power is on, turn on your compass light (AC rheostat control). Check Exterior lights Without exterior lights, the B-24 is a big roar ing hunk of darkness. If a running light is out, other aircraft can't tell whether your airplane is coming, going, or standing still. Learn the purpose and use of exterior lights and have the engineer see that all are in good working order. 224 The best time make this check is during the visual control check. Have the ground crew check all lights the engineer can't see. Purpose of Exterior Lights 1. Running or Position Lights: These 6 lights consist of 2 green starboard lights, one on top and one beneath the right wingtip; 2 red port lights, one on top and one beneath the left wingtip; and 2 white tail lights, · one outboard of each vertical tail fin. These mark the extremi ties of the airplane and show which way it is moving through the darkness. They are con- · trolled by a toggle switch on the pilot's pedestal. 2. Passing Light: This is a red spotlight lo cated between No. 1 and 2 engines. It may be left on or turned on when in the vicinity of other aircraft to give notice of your position. 3. Recognition Lights: There are 4 of these, one (white) located on top of the fuselage above the bomb bays and 3 (amber, red, and green) sunk into the fuselage skin beneath the bomb bay catwalk. There is a separate 3-position foggle switch for each light, positions "ON," ."BLINK," and "OFF." In the blink position, a telegraph key can be used for blinking the color of the day when operating in combat zones, or for code signaling. · Various combinations of colors and signals make it possible to vary the code as frequently as desired. 4. Formation Lights: These 7 blue lights are located on top of the empennage to aid in for mation flying. They form a perfect "T" on which other airplanes can guide in night for mation flying. 5. Bomb Release Lights: These are located at the extreme aft end of the plane under the , tail turret. The white light goes on when the RESTRICTED bomb doors have been fully opened. The white light goes out and the red light goes on during the bomb release period; it is extinguished 5 seconds after the last bomb has dropped. This gives warning and protection to other airplanes in your formation. In training, these lights are sometimes wired to remain on all the time. 6. Landing Lights: The 2 landing lights are located just inboard of the wheel wells with sep arate toggle switches for each. They are ex tremely powerful and produce terrific heat con fined in a small space. When the plane is flying, this heat is dissipated r~pidly, but on the ground it can quickly burn out the bulb, espe cially in warmer climates. Never leave them burning for over 3 minutes when the pJane is on the ground. Taxiing at Night 1. Follow all daytime procedures with extra care. Be sure the flight indicator and directional gyro are working perfectly. You'll rely on them more than ever. 2. Turn off all inside white lights for taxiing. Use both landing lights while taxiing in close quarters but turn off one as soon as possible and then switch back and forth from one to the other every one to . two minutes to avoid over heating. Make turns with the inside landing light on. 3. Post an observer with his head out the flight deck hatch. Clear congested areas with a man on each wingtip and one out in front. Warning: Use extraordinary precautions. You can't see your wingtips and obstructions are concealed. Don't go off the runway, or ram parked aircraft. 4. If in doubt, ask the tower where to turn. It will keep you from ending up in a mudhole or on some strange main street. 5. Remember there are other aircraft around. Get radio clearance from the tower for cross ing runways. If taxiing toward a landing run way, retract your landing lights to keep from blinding incoming pilots. When you get in posi tion for run-up, turn off your landing lights to save batteries and avoid overheating. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED Run-up Your run-up is the same as in the daytime, but you have the problem of interior lighting. Be sure and have a red filter on the radio oper ator's light, or the white light will impair your night vision. Use a filtered flashlight to further aid your run-up check. Always make sure crew . are in proper positions for takeoffs and landings and that one crew member in rear compart ment is on interphone. Takeoff Make certain of your radio clearance to the takeoff runway and check for incoming air planes. As you turn into position for takeoff be sure that you are lined up straight with the runway lights and that the nosewheel is straight. Landing lights should be used or not in ac cordance with local requirements. However always flash both lights down the runway long enough to make certain that the way is clear. Fatal accidents have resulted from failure to do this. Top Turret Observer: ~ere possible put a man in this position during landings, takeoffs, and traffic flying to observe and report all traffic by interphone. 225 RESTRICTED Stay down the runway by combining the use of the directional gyro and reference to the run way lights after you get rolling. Three instru ments govern your takeoff: directional gyro, flight indicator and airspeed indicator. Be par ticularly careful not to hurry the airplane off the ground at night. If you have plenty of run way, get 5 to 10 mph extra flying speed ( espe cially if heavily loaded) and let the airplane fly itself off, judging your attitude by the flight indicator. Hold to your rate of climb., your air speed and your gyro heading. After you leave the runway it is easy to get into a turn if you don't follow your directional gyro and flight in dicator. Don't lower the nose so that the minia ture airplane on the flight indicator drops be low the horizon bar or you will fly into the ground. Control airspeed with slight change in attitude. Immediately after leaving the ground you'll find yourself in sudden darkness. Fly by refer ence to instruments. Flying half contact and half instruments at night is fatal, especially on takeoffs over dark areas. Pilot' should be en tirely on instruments but copilot can remain in outside contact when not checking instruments, his principal duty. It is a good idea to ask the copilot to call off airspeeds during night take offs. Get an altitude of 500 to 1000 feet before referring to the terrain and don't attempt to turn until you have full climbing airspeed and are at least 1000 feet above the terrain. Caution: W am the copilot not to glare the flashlight in your eyes if he is using it for pe riodic check of instruments. Alert Your Crew Spotting other aircraft should be the regular job of your crew just as. in combat. Require 1 them to report the position and direction of travel of all aircraft within the zone of vision of their respective positions. Check immedi ately with the responsible crew member if an airplane appears _unreported. Make your crew feel you are relying on them for specific duties. Don't Chase Lights It is difficult to tell whether a light is in the air or on the ground, whether it is moving or standing still. Don't chase lights. You may find 226 you have unintentionally dropped a wing to follow a light. The best procedure is to closely follow your gyro heading, check the attitude of your airplane and line up the light with a refer ence point on the airplane. Then you can soon tell whether it is moving, and in what direction in relation to your line of flight. 1. Synchronize propellers with a flashlight or by the reflection from landing lights. 2. Require the entire crew to use oxygen from the ground up for all flights above 10,000 feet. · 3. Require the copilot to check all instru ments regularly-with a filtered flashlight if difficult to read. 4. Restrict banks to standard needle-width turns. 5. Keep track of where you are and require a record to be kept of the time flown on each heading. 6. Keep an hourly log of fuel consumption without fail. 7. Require the radio operator to send in posi tion reports every 30 minutes. 8. Know the terrain over which you are fly:. ing, elevations, location of airfields, location of airways, etc. 9. Don't unnecessarily increase the intensity of cockpit lights when flying instruments at night. This impairs night vision for at least 30 minutes after lights are turned down. 10. Turbulence: Reduce airspeed to 150 mph to reduce strains on the aircraft. RESTRICTED 11. Remember that a flash of lightning can cause temporary blindness for 10 minutes or more. Where there are repeated flashes of light ning, it may be necessary to turn on all cockpit lights as bright as possible and go entirely on instruments. If · static gets bad in the head phones, turn voiume low or put earphones up off ears. Radio Failure In case of complete failure of the radio, attract the attention of the tower by flying over the field 500 feet above traffic and repeatedly flash ing the landing lights or signaling with the rec ognition lights or the Aldis lamp; obtain clear ance to enter traffic by light-gun signals from the tower. Night Landings Always know the altimeter setting, exactly what traffic· pattern is used, and the altitude before takeoff. At strange fields notify the tower of your presence early. One of the main jobs of the tower is to tell you the number and location of other aircraft in the area. Remember that day and night traffic altitudes differ at many fields, usually being higher at night. Give the tower a chance to warn you of traffic condi tions. It may be necessary to hold you in a zone until other operations are completed. Ask the heading of the landing runway, the wind, altim- R EST RIC TED RESTRICTED eter setting and the length of the landing run way so you know exactly what to prepare for and to expect. Plan ahead. As soon as you are called in, proceed at once to join traffic. Tell the tower where you are, and call as you enter the downwind leg, base leg, and final approach. The more information the tower has about you, the more it can do to guide you safely in traffic. Execute procedures just as in the daytime. Flying your gyro heading and timing your dis tance out from the end of the runway on the downwind leg is doubly important. Remember that a high wind will drift you out considerably on a long base leg. Turning on Final Approach One of the key points in night flying is judging when to turn on final approach. ·your turn will carry you about ¾ of a mile closer to a projec tion of the landing runway. As you come along RUNWAY LIGHTS APPEAR TO BE IN SINGLE ROW AT COMPLETION OF TURN ON TO BASE LEG START TURN ON FINAL APPROACH AS TWO ROWS OF LIGHTS START TO SEPARATE the base leg, the 2 rows of runway lights will look like a single row. Start your turn at the moment the 2 rows of lights start to separate. Complete your roll-out from your standard rate turn just as the rows of runway lights are squared away ·at full width. Don't lose altitude in your turn. The most common error is not to lead the turn enough, find that you are going 227 RESTRICTED too far past the straight line with the runway, and then to steepen the tum. Don't make this mistake. Turns steeper than standard rate should not be made at night in a B-24, espe cially at reduced speeds used in the traffic pat tern. TOO LOW-LIGHT PATTERN APPEARS FLAT TOO HIGH-LIGHT PATTERN APPEARS TO RUN UPHILL 228 Final Approach Make sure of your line-up with the runway just as soon as your tum on final is completed. Then you are free to concentrate all your atten tion on your descent. Turn your landing lights on as soon as you roll out on final approach. In case a hazed condition blinds you, it is satisfac tory to use only the landing light on the co pilot's side until you are closer to the field. Pull up closer to the field at night than in the daytime. You want to make a somewhat steeper approach, controlling your descent carefully with power. When you are high, the double row of runway lights at the far end of the field appear to be raised up. When you are low the pattern of runway lights flattens out. What you want to do is to pick a landing spot and make it good. Making Good Your Point The green lights at the approach end of the runway are the point you want to make good. As you start your descent, line up these lights with a reference point on the outline of the nose or in your windshield. If the green lights move higher, you are undershooting; if they move be low your reference line as you descend, you are overshooting. Make adjustments in power ac cordingly. As in a day landing, maintain a descending airspeed of 125 mph and a descent rate of about 500 feet a minute. Keep your co pilot on his job. Have him call off both airspeed and altitude. How to Use Your Eyes Remember the principles of night vision. Don't look at things directly. Keep your eyes shifting from the general pattern of lights, to the point you want to make good, to what your landing lights reveal, etc. Don't stare at the whole pat tern of lights or you will think the field is closer than it actually is and you'll want to flare out too high. Don't stare down the landing lights or you'll tend to fly into the ground, leveling off late. Remember that the angle of your landing lights to the ground will change as you change the attitude of the airplane. At the beginning of your descent, they will be at a steeper angle than your descent path. As you come into your RESTRICTED DON'T STARE DOWN LANDING LIGHT BEAM OR YOU WILL FLY INTO THE GROUND flare-out, they will make a shallower angle than your path of descent. Watch out for red obstacle lights. These may be 50 to 100 feet above the ground and may be on water towers, or on poles with wires strung between. Don't ever get below them. The Flare-out If you control your descent to make good your point, it will bring you in to make contact within the first 113 of tlie runway. When your lights start to pick up detail on the ground, you'll be about 100 feet up and should start your flare-out. The ground will be well illumi nated and objects clearly defined. The usual tendency is to flare out too high and pull power completely off too soon. Coordinate the reduc tion of power with your flare-out but keep some power on to control your rate of descent and to RESTRICTED RESTRICTED WRONG RIGHT -- --- USE ROVING VISION AND YOU WILL MAKE GOOD YOUR LANDING POINT let you down easy. Don't pull all power off un til you touch. Note tire marks and the size of runway lights to help your depth perception. You may think you are down when you're not. Amount of power will vary from 11" to 15", depending on the weight of your airplane. Landing Roll As soon as your wheels are on the ground, ease the nosewheel down, and test out your brakes somewhat earlier than in day landings. It is more difficult at night to judge how much run way you have left. Make sure you are going to get the airplane stopped before you run out of runway. Clear the runway at once. Don't try to taxi on your own. Ask the tower where to turn and keep moving. There may be another plane behind you that also must clear the runway quickly. 229 RESTRICTED NIGHT VISION IN THE B-2 4 A large airplane presents a special problem in night vision. There are a lot of instruments and controls, and there is a temptation to flood the cockpit with white light while you are starting engines and running them up. There are two ways to solve this problem: 1. B se a red filter or cellophane covering over the radio operator's light and over your 230 night flashlights. Then your eyes will be adapt ing themselves to darkness during your prepar ations for flight. 2. Another way is for the pilot to use red adapter goggles until the cockpit _lights are out for taxiing, using them again during run-up if necessary. Landing lights will not great\y im pair night vision. RESTR. ICTED FORMATION FLYING When you get into combat you will learn that your best assurance of becoming a veteran of World War II is the good, well-planned, and well-executed formation. Formation flying is the first requisite of suc cessful operation of heavy bombers in combat. Groups that are noted for their proficiency in formation flying are usually the groups with the lowest casualty rates. Proper formation pro vides controlled and concentrated firepower, maneuverability, cross-cover, and precise bomb ing pattern, and permits most effective fighter protection. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED Heavy Bomber Formations Formation flying in 4-engine aircraft presents greater problems than in smaller aircraft. The problems increase in almost direct proportion to the airplane's size and weight. In the B-24, relatively slower response to power and control changes requires a much higher degree of an ticipation on the part of the pilot. Therefore you must allow a greater factor of safety. Violent maneuvers are dangerous and the necessity for them is seldom encountered. Close flying becomes an added hazard; it accom plishes no purpose and is not even an indica tion of a good formation. Remember that it is much more difficult to maintain position when flying with proper spacing than with wings overlapping. "Safety first" is a prerequisite of a good heavy bomber formation because of the num ber of lives and amount of equipment for which the pilot is responsible. 231 RESTRICTED THE VEE FORMATION I . I I I I i ----------~----------r------------ 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I - - - - - - - - -,- I I -'~- --------I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Clearance in Training Formations When flying the Vee formation in training, air craft must not be flown closer to one another than one-h~lf airplane span from nose to tail, and one-half airplane span from wingtip to wingtip. These minimum distances are to be maintained under all formation flying condi tions. Keep yourself posted on current AAF regu lations concerning clearances in formation fly ing, since they may change. Taxiing Out After engines have been started, all planes stand by on proper frequency. The squadron formation leader checks with the planes in his formation, then calls the towE:r and clears his formation for taxi and takeoff instructions. As he taxies out, No. 2 man follows, then No. 3, etc., each airplane taking the respective place on the ground that is assigned to it in the air. As soon as the leader parks at an angle near the end of the takeoff strip, the other aircraft do the same. At this point all planes run up engines and prepare for takeoff. The leader makes cer tain that everyone is ready to go before he pulls onto the takeoff strip. 232 Takeoff Squadron formation takeoffs should be cleared from the airdrome in a rapid and efficient man ner. Individual takeoffs will be made, and the following procedure is suggested. The leader goes into takeoff position and takes off at H hour. No. 2 man starts pulling into position as soon as the leader begins to roll. When the leader's wheels leave the runway, No. 2 starts taking off, thus creating a time lapse . of about 30 seconds between takeoffs. Similarly, No. 3 follows No. 2, etc. The leader flies straight · ahead at 150 mph, 300-500 feet per minute as cent, for one minute plus 30 seconds for each airplane in the formation. He levels off at 1000 feet in order to avoid necessitating high rates of climb for succeeding planes, and cruises at 150 mph. As soon as the leader has flown out the exact required time, he makes a 180° half-needle width turn to the left. The second airplane in formation assumes the outside, or No. 2, posi tion, while the third airplane assumes the in side, or No. 3, position. The leader of the second element assumes position on the outside of the formation and the airplanes in his formation assemble on him in the same manner. RESTRICTED FORMATION TAKEOFFS Altitude 1,000 Ft. Airspeed 150 MPH l Lead airplane flies straight out for I minute + 30 sec onds for each airplane, then makes a 180° half-needle width turn. 2 IO seconds after lead airplane starts to turn, the second airplane starts its turn, keeping the nose ahead of the leader, pulling into position from below (';\ and behind the leader's OUTSIDE wing. 0 .,¥. per Minute 3 IO seconds after the second airplane starts to turn, the third airplane starts its turn, keep ing the nose ahead of the leader, pulling into position on the leader's INSIDE wing. RESTRICTED ALL AIRPLANES TAKE OFF IN THE ORDER OF JOINING FORMATION AT 30 SECOND INTERVALS. (TIMING FROM THE MOMENT PRECEDING AIRPLANE OPENS THROTTLE TO START TAKEOFF RUN) RESTRICTED 233 RESTRICTED 3-Airplane Vee The 3-airplane Vee is the standard formation and the basic one from which other formations are developed. Variations of the Vee offer a concentration of firepower for defense under close control with sufficient maneuverability for all normal missions, and afford a bombing pattern which is most effective. Flight of 6 A formation of 6 aircraft is known as a squad ron, and is composed of two 3-airplane Vees. At least 50 feet vertical clearance must be main tained between elements in a squadron, with a minimum horizontal clearance of half an air plane's length between the leader of the second element and the wingmen of the first element. From the basic squadron formation of 6 air craft the group, made up of 12 to 18 aircraft, is formed. With but small variations, this can be changed to the combat formations used over seas. It is the purpose of training to teach a basic formation which can be readily under stood and flown by students and easily adapted to tactical use. + + + + + TOP VIEW + FRONT VIEW 234 Spacing of Wing Positions It is particularly important for the leader to avoid violent maneuvers or improper positions which will cause undue difficulty for the wing men. The spacing of the wing positions in Vee for mation is: 1. Vertically: On the level of the lead air plane. 2. Laterally: Far enough to the side to insure one-half airplane span clearance between the wingtips of the lead airplane and the wing air plane. 3. Longitudinally: Far enough to the rear to insure one-half airplane length clearance between the tail of the lead airplane and the nose of the wing airplane. Turns in Vee formation should maintain the relative position of all airplanes in the element. Practice Trail Formations A formation is in trail when all airplanes are in the same line and slightly below the air plane ahead. The distance between airplanes will be such that the nose of each airplane is slightly to the rear of the tail of the airplane ahead. It is important that this distance be properly maintained, since if it becomes too great the propeller wash of the airplane ahead will cause difficulty in maintaining formation. Trail formations are to be used only when there are from 3 to 6 aircraft involved, and for pur poses of changing the lead, changing wingmen, training in leading elements, and as an optional approach to peel-off for landing. Changing Wing Position in Training When changing from Vee to Trail, the wingman into whom a turn is made while in Vee assumes the No. 2 position in Trail, while the outside man takes No. 3 posit on. When return from Trail to Vee, the No. 3 man in Trail assumes the inside position of the Vee. Remember this, for it is the procedure for changing from Vee to Trail and from Trail to Vee. Also, as ex plained below, it provides a method for chang ing positions in a Vee formation. It is often desirable for a leader to change the wing positions of his formation, i.e., to RESTRICTED RESTRICTED VEE-TRAIL-VEE NO CHANGE IN WING POSITION 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 VEE-TRAIL-VEE CHANGE WING POSITION 3 2 3 2 R E S T R I C T E D 235 RESTRICTED 236 "' C z 0 u w "' 0 N reverse the right and left positions. This man euver offers danger of collision unless it is executed properly in accordance with a pre arranged plan. A safe procedure is for the leader to announce on the radio that the forma tion will go into Trail on his first turn. If the turn is executed to the right, it results in the inside man, or No. 2 wingman, becoming No. 2 in the Trail, and the outside man, or No. 3 wingman, being No. 3 in the Trail when the turn is completed. The leader then announces that the formation will re-form in Vee when the Trail executes a ~urn to the right. This second turn to the right re-forms the Vee with the wingmen reversed. As 'stated previously, this results in the No. 2 man of the Trail assuming the outside position of the Vee, as the No. 3 man takes the inside position. Before making each turn it is desir able for the leader to designate the ultimate position that each wing man is to assume. This will insure complete understanding of the man euver. Cha,nging Lead in Training The formation goes into Trail from the usual 90° turn to the right or left. The leader of the formation makes a 45 ° turn to the left and flies that heading for approxin 1ately 20 seconds or until a turn back will place him in the rear of the formation. When the No. 1 airplane starts his 45° turn, the No. 2 plane in the Trail immediately becomes the leader of the forma tion and continues to fly straight ahead. At the end of 20 seconds or thereabouts, the original leader turns back and takes up the No. 3 posi tion in his element, or the No. 6 position if in a flight of 6, and notifies the new leader that the maneuver is complete. Landing from Vee of Squadron in Training The formation approaches the airdrome at traffic pattern altitude, into the wind up the landing runway, at which time the wheels are ordered down by the leader and the check list accomplished. Flaps are lowered 20 ° and an air speed of 135-140 mph established. The leader signals No. 3, when over the edge of the landing run~ay, to peel off, No. 3 acknowl edging by peeling off. No. 1 follows, No. 2 fol- REST RIC TED RESTRICTED ..... --- .. ,-- ', ,, ', ~ --- ----/ ,,,- -- -- ' / /, ', ' . I / ' \ I / ,-----· ..... , ' \ I I ,' - >- ' \ \ 1/ / ; ' \ \ I I _. .. - ... , z ' \ I/ ,,- :) \ \ I ., / o=, \ I · 1 ' \ I / _.--- ■-- I I I I , '4 \ I I I ; · ' I 1/ ' \ I I :, \ I I I I I \ I I I I I I I I I I • I . I I I • 135-140 MPH I I I I I I I I • 20° FLAPS-135-140 MPH - I I I I I I I I I FU~L FLAPS I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ■ I • WHEELS DOWN I I ■ +- I I I I +- +- : I +-I +- +- RESTRICTED 237 RESTRICTED lowing No. 1, No. 6 following No. 2 and so on. If there is more than one squadron in the formation, the second makes a 360 ° turn above traffic pattern altitude and approaches the field after the first squadron has completed its peel off. Peel-off does not mean a chandelle or a dive. It should consist of a moderate, level turn until the airplane is definitely away from the rest of the formation. Conclusion This fact cannot be too strongly stated: a good formation is a safe formation. Air collisions usually result from carelessness or lack of clear understanding between members of the forma tion. If the simple rules given here are followed explicitly there should be no excuse for mis takes in the air. A mistake in formation flying may mean a costly, irreparable loss of lives and equipment. Remember that flying too close is not a dis play of skill; it is a display of bad judgment and lack of common sense. Tips on Formation Flying 1. Set rpm to minimum allowable for the maximum manifold pressure you expect to use. 2. At altitudes where superchargers are needed, set superchargers to give about 5" more manifold pressure than the average being used. 3. Use throttles to increase and decrease power in maintaining position. Very small cor rections should suffice, if you think ahead of the airplane and anticipate necessary changes, and if you give the correction time to take hold. But when far out of position, or when catch ing up with a formation, increase rpm to main tain proper manifold pressure and rpm rela tionships. 4. When under attack, use all available power required to stay in formation. 5. In order to keep formation when operating on three engines it is necessary for pilot and copilot to react as a team in applying the re quired new power settings while the airplane still has momentum and before it falls behind. If you wait too long before increasing power 238 you d'rop back out of formation, and have a difficult time catching up. 6. When changing leads in practice forma tions or in Trail positions, avoid closing to proper formation position too rapidly. This can be dangerous. 7. In moving about in position, move the air plane in a direction that will not interfere with or endanger any other aircraft in the forma- ' tion. In route formation, aircraft should be spread in width rather than depth, thereby being able to resume tight formation quickly. 8. Remember that at high altitudes the rate of closure is much more rapid than at low altitudes; you may have difficulty in slowing down quickly enough. Therefore, you have to begin stopping the closure much sooner. On the other hand, acceleration is slower, so that your anticipation of change in position must be more acute. 9. Learn to anticipate changes in position so that only slight control corrections are nec essary. Large corrections and constant fighting of the controls quickly wear out even a strong pilot. 10. Keep the airplane properly trimmed to compensate for consumed fuel, crew movement, released bombs, etc. A poorly trimmed airplane is difficult to hold in position. 11. Do not use only the outboard engines to maintain position; use all 4 engines. 12. Always enter a formation from below, which is preferable, or from the same level, but never from above. Power Changes in Formation The recommended method of varying power in formation is to use the throttles. To do so, reduce turbo boost, fully open the throttles, and then increase turbo. boost until you get the maximum power allowable for the rpm you are using. You may then vary the throttles from closed to full open with no harm to the engines. In loose formation at low altitude, it is pos- ' sible to use the TBS by adjusting it to posi tion "8" and opening the throttles until you get maximum power allowable for your rpm. Then the TBS range from "O" to "8" may be used safely. This procedure is not recom mended, however; use of throttles is pref erred. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED A COMBINATION OF P·OWER SETTINGS AND PERCENT OF POWER INCLUDING BMEP VALUES FOR VARIOUS ALTITUDES AND POWER SETTINGS THAT WILL PROVE HELPFUL IN PLANNING YOUR FORMATION FLIGHTS RPM MP AUTO ALL ALT. ARMY MODEL B-24 RICH AUTO-LEAN 2550 46.0 NAVY MODEL PB4 Y-1 2500 42.5 RPM vs. MANIFOLD PRESSURE 2450 40.0 CHART 2400 37.5 PER RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM CENT BHP MP MP MP MP MP POWER BMEP BMEP BMEP BMEP BMEP 10,000 15,000 ALL BELOW To 'To Above 2375 37.0 R- 1 830-43 & R- 1 830-65 ENGINES ALT. 10,000 15,000 25,000 25,000 2350 36.0 MILITARY 2700 2325 35.5 AND 1200 48.5 (5 MIN.) 260°C HD. TEMP. LIMIT 2300 35.5 TAKE-OFF 192 2275 35.0 AUTO-RICH 2250 35.0 ,+.. 2225' 33.5 I 2200 32.0 I 2175 32.0 'f 100 2550 (Normal 1100 46.0 ( 1 HOUR) 260~C HD. TEMP. LIMIT Rated) 186 2490 For Continuous Operation 90 990 41.5 at All Other Powers 172 Do Not Exceed 232 °C 2150 31.5 AUTO-LEAN 2400 2125 31.5 2100 31.5 MP MP 80 880 37.5 IMPORT ANT NOTE: 158 S.L. 25,000 2075 31.0 To & 2050 31.0 25,000 Above 2025 ..... 31.0 30.5 2000 ..... 31.0 28.0-30.0 2325 Do Not Increase MP More Than 75 825 35.5 2". Hg. Above Given Values 154 2250 Without Raising RPM 70 770 35.0 433 x BHP BMEP = 1975 ..... 31.0 MP MP 28.0 148 RPM 1950 ... .. 31.0 S.L. 15,000 27.5 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200 1925 ..... 31.0 To To 27.0 65 715 32 .0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 1900 ..... 31.0 15,000 25,000 26.5 140 140 140 140 140 31.0 30.5 2050 2050 2050 2050 1875 31.0 24.5-30.( 60 660 31.0 31.0 31.0 31.0 1850 31.0 24.5 139 139 139 139 1825 MP MP 31.0 24.5 1800 S.L. 10,000 To To 31.0 24.5 1900 1900 1900 2000 55 605 31.0 31.0 31.0 3.00 1775 10,000 15,000 ..... 24.5 138 138 138 131 1750 31.0 28.5 1750 1750 1850 2000 1725 31.0 27.5 50 550 31.0 31.0 30.0 28.0 1700 30.5 26.5 136 136 129 119 1650 1750 1850 1900 1675 30.0 26.5 1650 30.0 26.5 45 495 30.0 28.5 27.0 26.5 130 122 116 113 1625 29.0 26.5 1600 28.0 26.5 1600 1700 1850 40 440 28.0 26.5 24.5 1575 27.5 26.0 119 112 103 1550 27.0 26.0 1500 1500 1750 1525 26.5 26.0 35 385 26.0 26.0 24.5 1500 26.0 I 26.0 111 111 95 RESTRICTED 239 RESTRICTED 3 POUNDS FULCRUM PRINCIPLES OF BALANCE The theory of aircraft weight and balance is extremely simple. It is that of the old familiar steelyard scale which is in equilibrium or bal ance when it rests on the fulcrum in a level position. It is apparent that the influence of weight is directly dependent on its distance 240 RESTRICTED from the fulcrum and that the weight must be distributed so that the turning effect is the same on one side of the fulcrum as on the other. A heavy weight near the fulcrum has the same effect as a lighter weight farther out on the bar. The distance of any object from the ful crum is called its arm. This distance, or arm, multiplied by the weight of the object, is its turning effect, or moment, exerted about the fulcrum. RESTRICTED J RESTRICTED Similarly, an airplane is balanced when it remains level if suspended at a cert~in definite point or ideal center of gravity (CG) location. It is not necessary that an airplane balance so that it is perfectly level, but it must be reason ably close to it. This allowable variation is called the CG range and the exact location, which is always near the forward part of the wing, is specified for each airplane model. Ob taining this balance is simply a matter of plac ing loads so that the center of gravity falls within the allowable range. Heavy loads near the wing location can be balanced by much lighter loads at the nose or tail of the airplane. If the CG falls within the CG limits, forward and aft, the loading is satisfactory. If not, the load must· be shifted until the CG does fall within the limits. For flight, since the wing supports the air plane's weight, it is obvious that the CG must remain within safe allowable limits; otherwise, the tail surfaces could not properly control the path of flight. Limits are usually expressed as a percentage of the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing ( % MAC). The MAC is simply the width of a theoretical rectangular wing which has the same aerodynamic characteristics as the regular wing. To obtain the gross weight and the CG loca tion of the loaded airplane, it is necessary first to know the basic weight and the CG location of the airplane. This weighing should be with the airplane in its basic condition; that is, with fixed normal equipment which is actually pres ent in the airplane, less fuel. When the weight, arm, and moment of the basic airplane are known, it is not a difficult matter to compute the effect of fuel, crew, cargo, armament, and expendable weight as they are added. This is done by adding all the moments of these additional items to the total moment found by weighing the airplane and di viding by the sum of the basic weight and the weight of these additional items. This gives the CG for the newly loaded airplane. This calcu lation can be performed by arithmetic, by load ing graphs, or by a balance computer. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED EFFECTS OF IMPROPER LOADING Overloading 1. Causes a higher stalling speed. 2. Always results in lowering of airplane structural safety factors which may be critical during rough air or takeoffs from poor fields. 3. Reduces maneuverability. 4. Increases takeoff run. 5. Lowers angle and rate of climb. 6. Decreases ceiling. 7. Increases fuel consumption for given speed ( decrease in miles per gallon) . 8. Decreases range. 9. Lowers· tire factors. CG Too Far Forward 1. Increases fuel consumption (less range) ; decreases maneuverability. 2. Increases power for given speed. 3. Oscillating tendency-increased strain on pilot during instrument flying. 4. Tends to increase dive beyond control. 5. Might cause critical condition during flap operation. 241 RESTRICTED 6. Increases difficulty in getting nose up dur ing landing. 7. Overstresses _nose wheel. 8. Results in dangerous condition if tail structure is damaged or surface is shot away. CG Too Far Aft 1. Creates unstable condition. 2. Increases stall tendency. 3. Definitely limits low power; might affect long-range optimum speed adversely. 4. Decreases speed. 5. Decreases range. 6. Increases pilot s·~rain in instrument flying. 7. Results in a dangerous condition if tail structure is damaged or surface is shot away. 8. A sudden upgust or downgust may cause stall before recovery is possible. The reason is that the elevator is trimmed to keep the nose down. Each bump throws the nose up. In case of a severe bump there is little elevator travel left to bring the nose down, making a recovery difficult. 242 PROPER LOADING OF THE B-24 The day is past when the pilot makes decisions by the seat of his pants, and the loading of air craft is no exception. Especially is this true in the B-24. Here is a high performance air plane if properly loaded. But you can't expect non:nal performance if you hang a ball and chain on the tail, put a ring in the nose with hundreds of pounds hanging from it, or sus pend an anchor from one wing. Improper load ing at best cuts down the efficiency of the air plane and at worst can cause a crash. In transition, pilots learning to fly the B-24 sometimes get in the habit of overlooking weight and balance because there are often only a few individuals aboard, no bombs, no ammunition and th~ distribution of weight is of less importance. Bear in mind that the tacti cal Air Force you join will expect you to know weight and balance when you arrive. Any B-24 airplane commander worth his salt will take time to master the relatively simple operation of the load adjuster. Note: There is a load adjuster for every airplane. On the back of its case are blank spaces for 4 items: 1. AF No ......... ; 2. Model ........ ; 3. Basic Wt ....... ~; 4. Index ........ . Fields will refuse to clear you for departure unless these items are filled out and unless you can complete a Form ~.., (weight and balance clearance) for the flight as required by AAF regulations. RESTRICTED INSTRUCTIONS FOR OPERATION OF THE B-24 LOAD ADJUSTER The load adjuster is the calculator used in con junction with the Weight and Balance Hand book. Profi€iency in its operation will save the time and effort of tracking down the elusive CG by means of mathematical calculations. Its use in conjunction with the charts and forms · contained in the handbook insures a safe load ing and provides a means of checking exactly how the balance position will be affected by each item of load which is added or expended. The colored top strip is the guide to a safe loading. The actual loading range is the area between the yellow sections. The yellow area restricts these limits further for certain condi tions. These conditions vary with each airplane. On B-24D, E, G, H, and J load adjusters a re striction is imposed when fuel is carried in the forward bomb bay. This caution is noted so that the allowable rear limit will not be exceeded as the balance position moves aft with the con sumption of this fuel. When there is no forward bomb bay fuel aboard, this yellow section may be disregarded. The sloping lines indicate the limits of the loading range for the gross weights to which tlle airplane is to be loaded. Examination of the top strip will show that at high gross weights the forward section of the loading range increases but ciiminishes at the rear limit. Comparison of the top strip with the center of gravity grid will explain the reason for these sloping limits. The movement of the hairline indicator trans lates the change in balance position as load is added or expended in terms of the index scale which appears on the bottom of the rule. This index is merely a simple reference that is mathematically related to the center of gravity grid which appears on the inside of the load adjuster. The center of gravity grid on the inside RESTRICTED RESTRICTED of the rule is the basis of the load adjuster's design. The forward and aft red sections show the CG limits in terms of % MAC, and it is fro~ these limits that the top strip of the load adjuster is derived. The dotted lines show the fuel travel and determine the yellow caution are;as for this ~irplane. The CG position in terms of % MAC and inches froni the reference datum may be read directly from this grid. The crosswise lines represent the weight and the diagonal, down ward lines represent the percent. To convert an index reading to % MAC, note the p9int at which the indicator hairline and the gross weight line intersect and the % MAC is esti- · mated at that intersection. The marks across the top of the grid are in inches from the refer ence datum. The position in inches is road in the same manner as the % MAC since, had the lines for inches been extended downward, they would follow the trend of the percent lines. The fuselage diagram on the back of the load adjuster will be of great assistance in deciding where to place load items. It also provides in formation concerning leveling lugs, jig points, etc., to assist you in the actual weighing of the airplane. The loading scales on the front of the load adjuster are lettered to correspond with the compartment letters on the diagram on the back of the load adjuster. The basic weight and moment scales on the inner side of the load adjuster slide determine for you in a few simple operations the basic index which is the starting point of all loading calculations. All that you need do to arrive at a basic index is set t!'ie indicator hairline at "O" on the index scale. Then, move the slide until the basic weight is under the hairline. Follow that up with a quick slide of the indicator to the basic moment/ 1000 and the basic index is right there under the hairline staring you in the face. If the basic moment/ 1000 should hap pen to be on a scale other than that containing the basic weight, don't be alarmed. Just set your basic weight as above: move the indicator to the final moment/ 1000 mark at the end of the scale containing the basic weight; then move the slide again until the same moment/ 1000 mark at the beginning of the next scale is 243 RESTRICTED under the hairline. Move the indicator to the moment/1000 figure you were looking for in the first place and the problem is solved. Operation of the Load Adiuster All loading calculations start with the hairline of the hairline indicator over the basic index. From there on it requires only 2 operations to lead each of the totals shown on Form F. The first step is to slide the slide until the "O" vertical starting line of the scale involved is under the hairline. The next step is to move the hairline indica tor until the hairline is over the weight that is to be added. The new index is then read under the hairline on the index scale at the bottom of the rule. That's all there is to it. These two operations are repeated for each loading total that appears l uJ ~ .. ......... .......... .J Cl .......... ~~ f'...._ w ..... 1/) ...... ~ ID ~ ............. ........... t-,,....__ ............ "'--1/) t--,....__ .... ~ -"10 ~...J ~ r--,..... -o........., r-,.....__ -....... ~ 0 r------..... l;J ~ .... ....__,.... ~ ~ ' I I 0 0 in ' N ~ ... " 8 "Ii ~ ~r--,..-..., ~ ~ .......... t--,,..._ ~ -.. r---......_ ,..._ ~....__ ' ~ ' r'\. '\. ~ ' ~ " "\ """i~ '\. ' r\: ... w g u. ill ~ N .,_ u. u. 0 .... I.. 8 ~ N d ... 0 z --r---.._..._ "-- 1/) --....... r---~ JS~-....., g """-- --~ r-....... r--.... -i--~~ --.... r-- r--.. -r--. I -r-- """-~. J I r---,.;_ -r--_ .,.l -..... ~ r--- ' t--C\J L.._ ~ r--- -· .-- ,._ r-- r--. ~ ~ ~ . r--.. i-- --;;, r---~ -..._____ ---r-- --;, --- - t---t---- - L...__ ...... i'--,.... ~ .......... r---,.__ - ---r----....~ •• -I~ ---.. 1--... ,.__ r--. ---r--. 8 r-- ~ r---- r-- r-- --r--. ~ ....._ -r--- ~· '" 'r---.. " ..... ............. ~ ~ ""'" ~ ~-- ~ ~ ~ ,....._ "' ~ " "' ' ~ ~ "Iii II) .:: in z -..... z 0 z :::, ~ C z :::, 0 ~ <., RESTRICTED TAKE-OFF CHART (B•24D) DENSITY ALTITUDE -1000 FT . HEAD WIND-MPH 0 0 0 9 __ °' __ ~ __ ,... __ ~ _ __,lll--,,;t~-::__-::__ 4 (T')-::_-::_-::_N-r---:_-:_ 4 ..-_____ ...,o.=-,:::-,:::--r' ::::::::_j~;===P)+' ==-J,.: _____ o __ ~ __ N __ M __ ~8 ~ a) "-.--+--+--I---+--+-+--+---+--+--+-~ ___,.._,.____.l----+-~--+--~----4§ l--3w---+---+ ·~~llk:-~- -+--+---+---t--~--+---+----+---t ---__..~-----4-1--..---+-------I,... L---l~--l---.J.-~-+3,a,-~~-- 1-----+--+---m~--4--~--..--~---~-____,--~--...._~-~ ~-+--+--~~ 8 ~~---P~J----1-----+--·n~--+--+----1~~ o _____ _...._-1-4►--- J .... 1----+--+---@ c;_.... __ ...,.q -----~ w---"' --------'--u >--~ Ou_ zu. t------+--+---- o----,. I w -~---'--~ ~----- ---+---1~-1-,-----+-'11.---+--'11~+--co ~ 0 ,__.__..,.._ ...... ..,....+--.r-1--...... ~.......,+--+---~~~-od---tr---+-.r---+---+8-'-A~--' ................ - ....... __..&..---+-- - UJ~u. .JcnOO ~ t-~CC UJcnZ ~~~~~~~~~~!:io~~o ""o ::> > ~ ~ ~-~~~~~~ oN5~t-:«cn ~~~~~-~--~oz~~o0 HEAD WIND-MPH 0 a) ,._ - 8:i~ u:~ ...:.,,,,<-+---"""...----"".,__~....,_IA'I O X a: O ~=-.pi..,.,.--1.....>. ~-' 0 '"'i N t- u. 0 cn RUNWAY SURFACE 251 RESTRICTED 252 MAXIMUM RANGE CLIMB CONTROL CHARTS The maximum range climb control charts are c~lculated on the basis of rated power climb with a 10° cowl flap opening. A mini mum amount of fuel and time is used in attaining a given alti tude if normal rated power is used for the climb. These charts enable the pilot to determine the amount of fuel used and the distance traveled (with no wind) while climbing , to the altitude, as well as the amount of reduction in range (because of the climb) for any given mission. Example: At a gross weight of 60,000 lb., the curves show that a climb to 20,000 feet for a B-24D equipped with wide-bladed pro pellers, requires about 258 gallons of fuel and the distance traveled while climbing (with no wind) is 82 miles. The true IAS (which must be corrected for pitot position error and instrument error) for best climb as given by the curve is l58 mph. Climbing at some speed faster than the value specified will decrease the rate of climb and increase the total fuel consumed and the dis tance traveled during climb. Climbing at powers lower than rated power will have the same effects as increased speed. RESTRICTED RESTRICTED MAXIMUM RANGE CLIMB CONTROL (B-24D) WIDE BLADE PROPELLERS-BLADE TYPE N0.6477A-O 40r--T-r"'T'"""!r--r-r-T'""1'"""T"'"T""'r-T-r-,---,r--r--r-r""T-Y-..,.-l"""T'"'T"".,...,,-r--r-r-r-r-'T"""'l-,--,--~--,--,-,-,--,-.,..-r--,----,r-,--=-ir-r--,-...,.--,.....,....,..."17'T--,--r-r-T"--..,.....,-,--r-T"...,.,~--r-~__,.--,-"T"-l"""'T""T'""',--,"""T"-r-r""""T--..,....,r"""T"--T""'T--,--r-,r-T-r-,-,--r~r-,40 ~ ~ ,- .. - / ',I" - ~ ...... I""--, -4,o I I r-t---r-r-t;---r-1-----r--r-t-r-r-1-;---r--rr-r-r;--r-t-t-t-t-t-t--t-t-t--i--t--t-+-1--t--t-1--t-+-t-+--::±--t-J-"9-t-+-+-r+--t-+-+-nr-+-+-r+-+-+-+--+-+-+--t:~;.h• s. ... 'PRo ----~t--t---t---t--t---t--+-+---.--+--t---.---.-+---+--11--+--+-~--f--f-- ... __. ,,,,,_ - i 6 v - -- - - .. ~ ... "' - r-,.;,-....: >o it ' I ,_,,. ...- I - -~ '- • .,.. /,- ,. .>r-,...~f: s~ • -- ... - / I 6,,, ..... -· ... ~ ........... - ... ~,R• 11 - .... ,,, - • - ,.. L, ..._ Y, Cf: :::,,,--!-+--+-+-+--+-+-1.-+--+-+-+-+--+-........ -t 36 I - , ~.,.,- / - 1.- ...... - 7 - 4'~ - :::::~ c1:,l.. ·" _ ,. • / t__ 1-• - ,, ' •"".'.'.~ - ............ --- --:~--,- .... r--,;......._0JG ( p • 1 ,,. , - 1 i- -.- ,. r--..r'f/ic .... ~ -· • ~-- -- I/ ... - """'. • ,,, . - .,.,. - - ~ - , 0 ,~ I .,,,..... / ....,...... • ... ~ ~.... .~ ... ~ - -- ::::;, •• ·1- ••.,. .a,... .... o ~.,. 32 3 2 t-+-+-~....+--+-+-+-+-~-+-+-1-+-+-+-+--+-+-+-+--+--1. )i. A I - - ~~~ I ,_ti' , ~ / --- ----~ V I/~ _ .. -., - ~~..., '!:!J.. - tt-+-+--+--t---+-+-+--t----+--+--t---+-+--+-t---+--+--+--+--+--+---i o ~ ~ ~ n L., ,- J - .,,,.1 - V - ... ~ - I.I ~ . ~ , .... .- - t- 1 I -I--+--½-+ ~ ~71 .,,,,,~ I .... ~..... ' I/----~- '/ / ~ ~ .... 1- w ,. REDUCE M.P. I Y/ PER I 000 FEET 17- ? ,'>J" I ~~ /"' ' _ _,,""' J i.-""""'j / V , .,,.,~ 28 W W 28 ABOVE THIS LINE (LIMITING Y1 I '?"..'?. '/ ~ ~A .;"' / __..,- f / __ ,._ V ✓',I"' W U. ~ TURBO RPM-21300) I I/ ✓'" ~ - ,1/1 j ~'<' ~,,, __ .,...,.... J L_,....,... / / / LL 0 +-+~+-+--+- .,_ r ~ 19' :\_?.:: 1, - I ■ ~ ~ ~ - J I - ll' +--,~ ...... .--J'--t-+--i 0 0 t--+--+--i--+--+-+-+--+--+---'--t--+---t--9--t--1. -, / . <:> / ~ q ,,... ,_ I .- J I - ~--+-..,,_,i-+--+-+-+ - I ,J - - - - 0 2 4 t--+-+-+-+-+--+-4--+--+--t-+-+-....... ~ c~ o \ .Ul_l , ~,,,,,... . ~ _:,,,,,... I ---- -- .,,. 1 I , - - ~.,_ ... - ~--+-""'--1--+-~+-+-+--+--._..-+-~.-+--+-t 24 o 0 t-+-+-+-+-+--+-1--+--+---t-+-t-+-t--"f>J":J), o ,.. )1 m -~ ',I" ~ "~ ,:_ ~ r ,_ ~-, J ..J. - -~ - 4 8 0 GA LS . I I'~~ 0~ \.~..?I ~ ~ -~ / I I ---'440 GALS. I w ;;c..,. .J ~o ,o.,,, X ~ "" .... -- / ~ _,-~ w o 2 0 cf't ~ r>& I 0°/1 1 ~ ~ __,,.,_t-+-+-+-t-+-~--+~-+--,,,,,,-ia,,.~t-t--+-1--+-+-+-+-+-~-+-+-+--if-, +_-+__,-+-,_::::a,....-'4"""1s::.1 r....llllc....JG-A+-1-+s--..J-+-+-+-+--t-+--+--+--+--+-i1-+--+-1-+-+-t-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+--+-it-t--+-t-+-t 20 o :J .lo/ ~ ./ ~c°A ~ ..,~_, ~~,.... _ _..,...-, I , ::, r t--+--+-+--+---t--+--t--+-~t---+-~ ~ ,/ ~' 1. oO ~"' ~ ,~'lJ_,, .... l ------ 360 GALS.---i--+--1----+--+--+--+--+-+--+--+--,f-+--+---+--+--t---+---+---1--+--+--+--t-+--t--t--1--+--+---1i---t--t r L_ r~J j " ~ ";,0-'i ...... '?,;,-,.,. Ill""' I L_ ,-_J 7N ,.,, , ', ,,K I \ r - -~20 GALS. NOTE: I. 1.A.S. AS SHOWN ON THIS CHART IS TRUE INDICATED AIRSPEED _ ~ ~, J / ,., 1111"" · ,,. .,, ~",,,; ~ .,. __ ,,,,.... ..., ANO MUST BE CORRECTED FOR PITOT POSITION AND INSTRUMENT 16 _,,,,,,,, - ~-4-+--+-_.__-1---+- vf / r V ~ ~' e,_:,..,, S ~ \ 1 1 1 1 1 '' 1 THROUGH FLIGHT TEST, WHILE DASHED LINES INDICATE DATA - ~ t--+---+-----i~' 1' ,:/ // ~~~ ,,,, ~,,. o0\\~1'40 1GALS.~ ~J/L~SEDTOATTAIN ~r~~~ISESTABLISHED THROUGHALIMITEDAMOUNT OF FLIGHT _ Z 12 '// :1 ~ ~ _,,,~ c..':,0 I I I I ALTITUDEATCHARTED 3.ALLWEIGHTSUSEDINTHISCHARTAREINITIALGROSS ·WEIGHTS. - l2 (/)Z ,, ~ ~ - "' -t--t-+--+--ti--+--t-+---+-+ DISTANCE W I/ / / '"'; i.-;,,, ~'WJI" 1,o11111 __,.- 2 0 GALS. ---------------+---1--..---+--+--+--+------.--.--.-~.---.----------....--.--..--.---.--........... -r--,--,---,.--..--r-1 W 0 ) i / V l ~~ ~" __ _,, l , , , , , , , o ~-4-~-'-'~~--4-:E---l-l..-:!-+-t--Jll-:+---,f++-+-+---¼.,,.,...:..L..-JI.L...L.-'---..L....1-+--+-+-+-t-~l-+-+-+--+-t-~l-+--l-+-+--+-~~-+-+-+--+---l-~-+--1--1-1-+-+- CLIMB co ND IT IONS . . .• 11 8 '/' / / i," ~;' --"...- 160GALS. I. RATEDPOWER-IIOOBHP/ENGINE-2550RPM-46 MP-AR I, V "r Y,. ..,.fl' -Iii!~.,... 2. 10°cowL FLAPS 36 ---1 8 ) / Y ./ ✓, ~' 1 ~"' 120 GALS. 3. 0° WING FLAP -ADDITIONAL AIRPLANE STABILITY MAY BE (II J, ~ V ... , .. 1-",.,. -t--t--1---t---t--+-+---t--t---- t: (/) z Lu 0 PEND ING ON THE DEGREE OF ROUGHNESS . 2 GENf;RAL SURFACE ROUGHNESS CAUSED BY A COLLECTION OF MUD OR 101 RT I DECREASES ~ H---=----.~--+-=~~-___.._:P~E~R~F~O_RM-----,AN~ C_E_ A_S_ M~U_CH_ A~S~,_O_R--+-M_OR_E---+-TH_ A_N_,+-----i3~ OOO NO I 25,000 I- w w LL. I 20,000 w 0 :) I- I- J < >- I- in z UJ 0 (/) co ~ t-,.------t-;--t-\-t--\-----t--\----t--,.-----H--+t--H-- t\----+--+---l----1----f 40,000 J I I I C) MAX.CYL. HEAD 232"C 260°C 2so·c ._________,,.__~~~rr~~~~v--~:+-n-1-~t+-+-t--\~ -\---t\-----1~-l---'r+--+-+--\-t--+-+------+---+--+--l50,ooo w ~ TEMP. MAX. CARBURETOR AIR TEMP. LIMIT FOLLOW ARRow·s THROUGH POINTS A-B·C-O·E & F TO FINO THE TRUE & INDICATED AIRSPEED FROM TEMP· ERATURE, PRESSURE ALTITUDE,¾ POWER, ANO WEIGHT. 38°C FUEL USED -GALS. 9 WEIGHT LOST- LBS. 6 TO OBTAIN G W. AT ANY POINT DURING FLIGHT SUBTRACT WT. OF FUEL USED FROM INITIAL G.W. RESTRICTED 500 I I 1.opo I I 5,000 ,1.5po I I ~:oro, I 2.~p~ I ,3.o,oo 13.100 10,000 15,000 20,000 NOTE: THE SPEEDS SHOWN ON THIS CHART APPLY FOR AIRPLANES EQUIPPED WITH PROPELLERS HAVING BLADE TYPE 1i6353A-18 OR 6477A-O R E ·s T R I C T E D CRUISING CONTROL CHART MODELS B-24G,H & J NAVY PB4Y-I (WITHOUT RADAR) R-1830-43 ENGINE /8 ENDIX-STROMBER G) \ CARBURETOR AUTO RICH FOR 65% POWER AND ABOVE -AUTO LEAN BELOW 65% 100% HP=4XIIOO HP (NORMAL RATED> TAKE OFF -AUTO RICH, 2700/48 .5 11 FOR USE IN CRUISING FLIGHT- 1. DETERMINE DENSITY ALTITUDE . SET MAN. PRESS. ANO RPM TO CHARTED VALUES, AS REQUIRED, TO GIVE SPEED OR RANGE DESI RED . 21N HOT WEATHER INDICATED AIRSPEED WILL BE LOW, IN COLO, HIGH WHEN COMPARED TO CHARTED VALUES. CHANGE MAN. PRESS. AS REQUIRED TO OBTAIN CHARTED INDICATED Al RSPEED . CTHI S WILL ESTABLISH POWER EXACTLY. FUEL FLOW WILL THEREBY BE ESTABLISHED.) 3 . DO NOT INCREASE MAN. PRESS . MORE THAN 2" ABOVE CHARTED VALUES WITHOUT RAISING RPM 4 . AFTER FINDING SPEED FOR BEST RANGE, USE WEIGHT CORRECTION IN DETERMINING POWER SETTING REQUIRED. 5. FOR STEADY CRUISING IT SHOULD NOT BE NECESSARY TO RE-SET POWER OFTENER THAN EACH HOUR . EVERY 3 HOURS WILL PROBABLY BE SATISFACTORY. 6 .DO NOT EXCEED 32" MAN. PRESS. AND 2200 RPM FOR AUTO LEAN OR35.5" MAN. PRESS. AND 2325 RPM FOR AUTO RICH FOR CONTINUOUS CRUISING. 1 AT AN ALTITUDE WHERE A CHANGE OF RPM IS SHOWN USE LOWER RPM . 8 . WEIGHT or FUEL TAKEN AS 5 .89 LBS./GAL. C USING STANDARD TEMPERATURE CORRECTION) 9 . FUEL FLOW VARIATION IS APPROX . I% INCREASE FOR EACH 6000' INCREASE IN AL TITUOE . FUEL fLOWS GIVEN ON CHART ARE QUOTED FOR 12500 1 FOR POWERS RANGING FROM 80o/. POWER· TO MILITARY POWER . AT POWER CONDITIONS BELOW 60%, THE FUEL FLOW FIGURES ARE QUOTED FOR THE AVERAGE ALTI· TUDE, THROUGH THE AL TITUOE RANCES IN WHICH RPM IS HELO CONSTANT WITH THE GIVEN POWER CONDITION. FUEL FLOW FIGURES ARE FOR BENDIX STROMBERG ,CARBURETOR SETTINGS PD-12F2-14, PD-12FS-14 . 255 RESTRICTED 256 3-ENGINE CRUISING CONTROL CHART The form on this ch~rt is the same as that of the 4-engine cruise control chart and it is to be used in the same manner. Though extensive tests of 3-engine performance were not made, data obtained indicate that the chart gives conservative values. It is recommended that the pilot check his individual airplane against this chart to determine how conservative the chart may be. The worst 3-engine condition (left outboard engine dead) as well as the best 3-engine condition (right inboard engine dead) should be checked. The following facts should be kept in mind concerning 3-engine operation: 1. Airspeed will be less for a given amount of power from each engine, so care should be exercised lest the head temperatures become excessive. 2. Since engine temperatures are likely to become critical at high altitudes, a gradual descent to the lowest practical level is recom mended. 3. The rpm and manifold pressure combinations which are used for normal operation should be satisfactory for the 3-engine condition; but it has been found that cooling is improved somewhat by using higher rpm and lower manifold pressure than those shown on the cruising control chart. The additional dashed lines on this ch.art show the approximate minimum percent BHP which can be used for given gross weights. Corresponding airspeeds may be found by using the gross weight correction lines at the bottom of the chart in the regular manner. RESTRICTED ~ LL 0 0 0 w 0 ::> t- ~ <( > t- (/) z w 0 CONDITION RESTRICTED 30 25 20 15 10 TEMPERATURE °C 0 20 40 60 HEAD TEMPERATURE LIMITS CONTINUOUS CRUISING RESTRICTED 3-ENGINE CRUISING CONTROL CHART (B-24D) TRUE INDICATED AIRSPEED - M.P.H. 170 180 190 200 210 220 NOTE: INTERSECTIONS OF DASHED LINES & ¾ POWER LINES GIVE CEILINGS FOR THE VARIOUS WEIGHT & POWER COMBINATIONS. USE GROSS WEIGHT CORRECTION LINES TO OBTAIN SPEEDS 230 35 30 25 20 15 i-: u. 0 0 0 w 0 :::> t: ~ <( >- t- U) z w 0 -----......;:i~...,_~_,,;;~-...,.;...~__,;,;~~__;~!.....3._:._~6~00 257 RESTRICTED . 258 MAXIMUM RANGE CONTROL CHART Enter the chart with the desired gross weight, using the scale at the bottom of the chart. Proiect vertically, and at the proper altitude for each set of curves, read in turn: 1. Airspeed (to be corrected for instrument error). 2. Engine rpm. 3. Manifold pressure. 4. Brake horsepower. 5. Total fuel consumption. 6. Miles per gallon. Having picked off the condition, set rpm and manifold pressure. Manifold pressure may have to be varied to give the desired airspeed. At charted speed and rpm the manifold pressure will be high in hot weather, low in cold weather, when compared to charted values. Manifold pressure should not be raised more than 2" above the charted value without raising rpm. EXAMPLE: (Taken from maximum range control chart.) Given: Gross weight-45,000 lb.; Density altitude-15,000 feet. Results: True IAS-153 mph (apply pilot's instrument correction). RPM = 1720; manifold pressure-28.3 BHP= 490 per engine (approx.). Fuel flow= 150 GPH (approx.) Miles per gal. = 1.31 (approx.) Notes: 1. For steady cruising it should not be necessary to re-set power more often than each hour. Every 3 hours will probably be satisfactory. 2. At low IAS,. when flying on the autopilot, the pilot should pay close attention to the airplane in order to prevent inadvertent stalling when the airplane flies through sharp updrafts. However, in cases where maximum range and endurance demand low speeds, the air plane may be flown manually, returning to automatic control when the low speeds are no longer required. 3. At speeds other than those for maximum range or maximum endurance, the cruising control chart is used as a guide . RESTRICTED MILES PER GALLON FUEL FLOW- GALLONS PER HOUR BHP PER ENGINE RESTRICTED MAXIMUM RANGE CONTROL CHART (B-24D) MANIFOLD PRESSURE IN INCHES OF He. ENGINE SPEED-RPM TRUE INDICATED AIRSPEED IN MPH 0 0 § 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 ~ 8 0 8 2 8 2 ,-. 'It N c, .0 • N 0 c, c, • N 0 c, ., tll ., •• ,-.. c, it, • ff> N - ~ ~in.V C")l")tf')ff>ff>NNNNN C,c,c,,-.."'-C>C)W,C")C")C")C")ff>C"),.,, ~ ~ I 2 ~ 0 C) 0 .,, JJ I [ ' \ \ 1~ l \ 1()//id \ 11 l\, C")t{) ,'If. 00> co,-.c, . . . MILES PER GALLON PROCEDURE: ENTER CHART AT GIVEN GROSS WEIGHT. PROJECT VERTICALLY AND OBTAIN SETTING FOR TRUE INDI CATED AIRSPEED, ENGINE RPM AND APPROX. MANI- RESTRICTED tl)00000000 000000000 VN0C>C>VN0 co«o-tN0GC)~N V •• ,,, ~tf>ff>M NNNNN- --- FUEL FLOW GALLONS PER HOUR FOLD PRESSURE AT ANY GIVEN ALTITUDE. NOTE 1. TRUE INDICATED AIRSPEED MUST BE CORRECTED TO PILOTS INDICATED. 2. ~FUEL CONSUMPTION AND MILES/GA~LON OF FUEL ARE FOR CHECK PURPOSES ONLY. BHP IS APPROX. FOR A GIVEN ENGINE RPM AND MANIFOLD PRESSURE. 0 0 0 0 0 II) 0 II) v, • V ff> BHP PER ENGINE =ocac,,-...c,tt) •·• fl> N N N N N MANIFOLD PRESSURE IN INCHES OF HG 0 0 ., 0 0 '° 11 0 0 ~ ENGINE SPEED IN RPM 0 C) 0 V) TRUE INDICATED AIRSPEED IN MPH SPECIAL NOTE: THE LOSS IN TRUE AIRSPEED DUE TO: 1. THREE NOSE GUNS IS 2 MPH. 2. ROUGH PAINT IS 2-7 MPH DEPENDING ON THE DEGREE OF ROUGHNESS. 3. GENERAL SURFACE ROUGHNESS CAUSED BY A COLLECTION OF MUD OR DIRT IS AS MUCH AS ITEM NO. 2. RESTRICTED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 1. Q. Is it proper to decrease rpm before manifold pressure? A. No. Decrease manifold pressure first, then the rpm. 2. Q. What is the proper method to increase rpm and power settings? A. Increase the rpm first, then the mani fold pressure. 3. Q. When flying on instruments, name some of the conditions you may encounter that are not prevalent in contact flight? A. Wing icing. Propeller icing. Pitot tube icing. Carburetor icing. 4. Q. How would you combat the conditions in question No. 3? A. Operation of wing and tail group de icer boots if conditions warrant it. Operation of propeller anti-icer system-should be put in operation before icing conditions exist. Turning on pitot tube heaters before flying on instru ments. Closing the intercoolers and opening throttles when drop of manifold pressure or engine roughness occurs. Note: Intercoolers should not be used for longer periods than necessary. 5. Q. Are there any restrictions on the use of the landing lights? A. Yes. Due to the lack of rapid air cir culation required to cool the lights, they should not be used longer than 3 minutes at a time while on the ground. Otherwise, light-bulb failure is likely. Use alternately while taxiing. 6. Q . · When do you use the carburetor air filters? A. When dusty air conditions are encoun tered on the ground or in the air. RESTRICTED 7. Q. If you had hot gasoline (because of hot weather or a hot engine) with possible vapor lock trouble in flight, how would you remedy the situation? A. By using .the electrkbooster pump. 8. Q. In the event of a gasoline stoppage to an engine, what is the first indication on the instrument panel? A. Fuel pressure drop. 9. Q. What is maximum allowable rpm and manifold pressure for using "AUTO-LEAN"? A. 32" manifold pressure, 2200 rpm (grade 100 fuel) and 30" manifold pressure, 2100 rpm with grade 91 fuel. 10. Q. When do you use "FULL (EMER GENCY) RICH"? A. At such time as the "AUTO-RICH" setting becomes faulty. 11. Q. If you were climbing at 35" manifold . pressure and 2300 rpm and you reduced rpm to 2000, what would happen to the manifold pressure? A. An increase of manifold pressure will occur with a resultant increase in BMEP. 12. Q. What is the desirable continuous oper ation head temperature? · A. 200 ° to 232 °C. Desirable 205°. 13. Q. What is the maximum one-hour con tinuous operation head temperature? A. Not to exceed 260 °. Must be in "AUTO-RICH." 14. Q. At what rpm should Engine 3 be run ning to operate the hydraulic system normally? A. Approximately 1000 rpm is required to operate the hydraulic system efficiently. 15. Q. If the propeller on Engine 3 is allowed 261 RESTRICTED to windmill, is the rpm sufficient to operate the hydraulic system? A. The hydraulic pumps on Engine 3 will i perate and supply pressure for the hydraulic system at all times when the engine is turning over. However, at low rpm the volume of oil supplied will be small; therefore, the action of any unit that is operated will be very slow. 16. Q. What should I do if a tire blew out on landing? A. Put the nosewheel firmly on the ground. Use the engines on the side the tire is blown on, concentrating preferably on the out board, and use sufficient brake on the good tire . to keep the airplane rolling straight. 17. Q. What is the allowable range of brake accumulator pressures? A. 850 to 1250 lb. 18. Q. What is the landing gear kick-out pressure? . A. Landing gear down-850 lb. Landing gear up-1100 lb. 19. Q. Explain the different methods of low ering th_e flaps. A. (a) Move the flap handle to "DOWN"; (b) If engine-driven hydraulic pump fails, 0r No. 3 engine is feathered, open emer gency hydraulic (star) valve, turn on auxiliary hydraulic pump and place flap handle in "DOWN" position; (c) Move the flap handle to "DOWN." Close forward valve and open rear valve and hand-pump flaps down. Use this procedure when engine pump and auxiliary hydraulic pump are not working. 20. Q. How long will it take to bleed the shuttle valve for flap operation after the flaps have been lowered by means of the hand pump? A. The time required will vary accord ing to the temperature. At times it may take as long as 20 minutes. Normal operation would probably be 3 to 5 minutes. On cold days the aluminum cylinder will contract more than the steel piston and it may be necessary to tap the valve very lightly to jar the piston loose so that it will return to the nori;nal operating position. 21. Q. Is it possible, under emergency con -ditions, to raise the flaps after they have been 262 lowered by means of the hand pump? A. Yes. First, open both valves, located on top of the hand pump, to bleed off the pres sure on the shuttle valve and allow the piston to return to the normal operating position. Second, close the aft valve, leaving the for ward valve open. Third, place the flap sele_ctor valve in the "UP" position. Fourth, operate the hand pump to supply hy draulic pressure through the open center sys tem to operate the flaps. 22. Q. What should be done in case of a vapor lock in the hydraulic system? A. This means there is air in the system . The selector valves should be operated back and forth, forcing the hydraulic pressure first one way and then the other, forcing the air into the reservoir until the system operates normally. 23. Q. What would happen if one accumu lator was shot away? A. One half of the braking action on each wheel would be lost. It would be impossible to operate the open center system until the bro ken line was sealed ( or repaired). 24. Q. Why is the landing gear lever put in the "DOWN" position when parking the air plane? A. With the landing gear lever in the "DOWN" position any increase of pressure in the system will be exerted on the down gear mechanism. This will hold the latches in the down position. An increase of pressure in the system could be caused by expansion of the fluid due to heat or changes in temperature. 25. Q. On the new airplanes, without the old de-boosters, the brake action is slow and then it grabs suddenly when it takes hold. What causes this? A. The metering valve may not be prop erly adjusted and/ or there may be dirt under the valve seat. 26. Q. What pressures are required to oper ate the bomb doors? A. Bomb doors open-600 lb. Bomb doors closed-1000 lb. 27. Q. Why does it take more pressure to close the bomb doors than it does to open them? RESTRICTED A. To compensate for the difference in force required on the top and bottom of the piston due to loss of area on the bottom of the piston on account of the connecting rod area. 28. Q. Why is the flap selector valve set to kick out at 450 lb. in the "DOWN" position and 750 lb. in the "UP" position? A. To allow for the different operating forces required on the up and down operation, as well as to compensate for the loss of area on the bottom of the piston due to the connect ing rod area. 29. Q. How can we determine when the air pressure in the accumulators is low? A. When use of the brakes causes the accumulator pressure to drop rapidly, by chat tering of the unloading valve when the accumu lator is charged, or by frequent cutting in of the auxiliary hydraulic pump when this facility is in use. 30. Q. Can the air pressure in the accumula tors be checked without removing the oil in the system? A. No. The hydraulic fluid must be re moved from the accumulator before the air pressure can be measured. If this were not done the gage would register the combined oil and air pressure. 31. Q. How often should the air pressure in the accumulators be checked? A. During extreme cold conditions, the accumulators should be checked daily. Slug gish brake action usually indicates low air pressure in the accumulators. 32. Q. If a brake expander tube were rup tured, could the system be repaired so that the hydraulic fluid would riot be lost when the brakes were operated? A. Yes. By disconnecting the line at the brake valve and sealing the opening, or by breaking the line to the brake expqnder affect ed, and pinching or sealing the end. 33. Q. Is it possible to operate the flaps with accumulator pressure? A. Yes. The procedure is as follows: 1. With the bomb doors closed, place the utility valve in the bomb door closed po sition. 2. Place the bombardier's bomb door RESTRICTED RESTRICTED selector valve in the bomb door open position. 3. The pressure from the accumulator is tl;ien routed from the accumulator through the pressure line to the utility valve, out of the valve through the bomb door closed line to the operating cylinders at the bomb doors. Since the bomb doors are closed, the pressure backs up through the line to the bombardiers' bomb door selector valve. When the selector valve is in the bomb door open position, the bomb door closed line is the return, therefore, the pressure enters the open center system. By operating the flap or landing gear selector valve either unit will operate from the accumu lator pressure provided there is sufficient pres sure in the accumulator. 34. Q. Explain in detail all the methods of lowering the landing gear. A. a. Lowering the gear through the reg ular method of hydraulic pressure created by No. 3 engine hydraulic pump. b. Lowering, the gear by hydraulic pressure created by the electric auxiliary sys tem. c. Lowering by hydraulic pressure created by the hand hydraulic pump on the copilot's side of the cockpit. . d. Lowering the gear manually by the hand crank mounted on the forward spar, re quiring between 28 to 32 turns. Caution: This crank must be wound back to its original po sition before raising the gear hydraulically. On late model airplanes the nosewheel can be extended manually in this manner. Pry open up-latch and depress drag strut to hold lock open, then disconnect lock mechanism with quick disconnect pin. Gear can be pushed over board by lifting up and forward on the top of oleo cylinder. Gear will fall out and lock down. 35. Q. ' When the landing gear is lowered, under what condition is the selector valve first placed in the "UP" position, and why? A. To insure a full supply of fluid on the up side of the piston and lines which will cush ion the shock produced by dropping the main gear and relieve up locks of full weight of gear before they are unlatched. This is an advisable operation when lowering gear after flights of long duration. (Over 2 hours.) 263 RESTRICTED 36. Q. Is it possible to lower the tailskid when the landing gear is lowered by emer gency methods? A. The tailskid is not lowered when the Lmding gear is lowered with the emergency hand crank. It is lowered by hydraulic pres sure only. 37. Q. Is it necessary in emergency landing gear operation to unwind the cables on the drum before raising the gear? A. Yes. If this is not done, the gear will not lock up. 38. Q. Why is it necessary to put the selec tor valve in the "DOWN" position when using emergency manua~ cable system for lowering the landing gear? A. To relieve the hydraulic pressure on the up side of the operating cylinder, other wise a hydraulic lock would be formed. 39. Q. Why must the utility valve be held open until the bomb doors are fully open? A. Hydraulic pressure is supplied to the bomb door operating cylinders only when the valve is held in the open or closed position. When released, th~ utility valve returns to the neutral position which shuts off the hydraulic pressure. 40. Q. Is there a manual operation for lower ing the flaps? A. No. 41. Q. What should be done if the hydraulic suction line between the reservoir and No. 3 engine pump is broken? A. Open the emergency hydraulic (star) valve and operate the auxiliary hydraulic pump to supply pressure for the open center system taking oil from the bottom of the reservoir. The check valve automatically shuts off the broken suction line. 42. Q. What should be done if the pressure line from engine No. 3 is broken? A. Break the suction line to prevent loss of reserve oil and open the 3-way suction valve to take oil from the bottom of the reservoir. Open the emergency hydraulic star valve and turn on the auxiliary hydraulic pump to supply pressure through the open center system. 43. Q. Should the airplane be taxied with the inboard or outboard engines? 264 A. Taxiing with the outboard engines gives better control; therefore, they should be used. However, do not allow inboards to foul up. 44. Q. a. If, with the gear down, the throttle horn blows and the light does not come on, where would you look for the trouble? ' b. Would you land with the horns blowing and no light? A. a. The trouble usually occurs in the micro-switches sticking on the main landing gear. This trouble cannot be remedied from the cockpit. The light and the horns are on the same electric circuit. The micro-switch on the nosewheel locking mechanism can be checked and should be checked' to see if it is the cause. If this switch is not at fault, there is nothing that can be done to remedy the matter while in the air. b. Yes. If a visual check absolutely indicated that the gear was down and locked. 45. Q. When starting an engine how would you know if it is under-primed? Over-primed? A. Usually an under-primed engine fails to give an indication of wanting to start or there may be a weak explosion occasionally while the engine is being turned over by the starter. An over-primed engine is usually one where the mixture is so rich and the explosions are so weak they will not keep the engine running; also white vapor coming out of the exhaust pipe is an indication, under some conditions, of an over-primed engine. Note: It is practically im possible to write all the causes or combinations of causes and remedies for the above. It is up to the pilot to learn the symptoms himself and apply the proper remedy. ' 46. Q. With a flooded engine, where would you place the throttle while starting? A. Place the throttle in the open position. · 47. Q. What is liable to happen if you take off in "AUTO-LEAN?" A. If the carbllretor mixture is in proper adjustment, possibly nothing would happen be cause the fuel mixture curve in "AUTO-LEAN" is almost the same as "AUTO-RICH" at maxi mum power output. However,·the danger is that the fuel mixture curve drops rapidly to a leaner mixture upon slight reduction of power. This RESTRICTED will cause detonation and possible engine failure. 48. Q. How would you determine whether the artificial horizon air screen is dirty? A. By observing the speed with which the instrument erects when the engine driving the instrument vacuum pump is started. 49. Q. Would you cage and set your artificial horizon in a climbing turn? Why? A. No. Because it would give erroneous readings and it would take several minutes for it to seek its proper position again. 50. Q. What are the maximum allowable precession limits on the directional gyro? A. Precession shall not exceed 3 ° in either direction for any 15-minute period on any heading, except that a maximum of 5 ° precession is permitted on one heading when the total precession on 4 headings 90 ° apart from each other does not exceed 12 ° and the precession does not exceed 3 ° on any of the other 3 headings. 51. Q. What is a spilled gyro instrument and how is this accomplished? A. A spilled gyro is a gyro which has ex ceeded its stop limits. Occurs during acrobatics or banks steeper than the stop limits of the instrument. 52. Q. How do you know when the engines are warm enough to taxi? A. When the oil pressure has returned to its operating pressure, approximately 80-100 lb.; when the oil temperature reaches a mini mum of 40 °C; when the head temperature is 120°c. 53. Q. Is there any reason why you should not taxi through mud with the wing flaps down? A. Yes. You are likely to throw mud into · the exposed flap tracks, thus impairing the operation of the flaps. 54. Q. When taking a bearing on a radio sta tion with the loop antenna using the aural null, does the needle always point toward the station? A. No. It will point either at the station or exactly 180° away from the station. 55. Q. What receiver and antenna combina tion would you use when flying in an overcast' RESTRICTED RESTRICTED where reception is poor? A. The radio compass receiver and the loop antenna, with the radio compass adjusted 90 ° to the station; or rotate the loop until you get maximum signal strength. 56. Q. How do you tune the radio compass to a station? A. With the radio receiver on the an tenna setting identify the desired station and get a clear signal by use of maximum tuning indicator, then put the receiver on the compass setting. 57. Q. Does the radio compass, properly tuned to a station, always lead you straight to the station? A. It will if you have absolutely no drift. However, with a drift condition, you will fly in an arc reaching your station. 58. Q. How many radio receivers is the B-24 airplane equipped with which will receive radio range signals? A. Three recei~ers: the command set, the radio compass set, and the liaison set. 59. Q. In the event No. 4 engine was on fire in flight, explain what you would do in se quence. A. Turn off the electric booster pump, turn the gasoline selector valve supplying fuel to this engine to the "OFF" position, close the cowl flaps, feather the engine and put mixture in "IDLE CUT-OFF" when fuel in lines has been used and fuel pressure has dropped to zero. In event the plane is equipped with a Lux fire extinguisher, turn its selector handle to No. 4 engine and operate the system. In this case, close cowl flaps to confine CO2 in nacelle. 60. Q. Referring to question No. 59, is the condition the .same on No. 1, 2, and 3 engines? If not, explain~ A. The procedure would be the same, with the exception of No. 1 or No. 2 Check which engine was driving the gyro instruments. Also check No. 3 engine before coming in to land and be sure the auxiliary electric hy draulic system is in operation. 61. Q. How would you reduce the BMEP in an engine? A. By increasing the rpm or reducing the manifold pressure. 265 RESTRICTED 62. Q. If you knew the nosewheel was not lined up straight before landing, what would you do? A. This is generally one indication that the shimmy damper is not working. On ac cumulator-type damper, align wheel with shim my damper locks. On Houdaille shimmy damp er where no lock is available, make a nose high landing as you would do for a damaged nose wheel. 63. Q. In the event No. 2 engine gasoline cells became faulty, how would you bypass these cells and keep No. 2 engine running? Does this procedure hold true on any of the other engines? A. Turn No. 2 engine selector valve to crossfeed to engine. Turn selector valve of fullest tank to tank to engine and crossfeed. Turn on fuel booster pump of fullest tank. This holds true on all engines. 64. Q. What precautions would you take be fore transferring fuel from the bomb bay tanks? A. Because of possible gas fumes prev alent during this operation, see that all the radio receivers and transmitters are off and permit no smoking. Unless necessary, see that the fuel booster pumps are off. Operation of any electrical unit which might create a spark should be avoided until the operation is com pleted, and any cabin heater in operation should be off. Crack bomb doors 6 to 8 inches and place observer in bomb bay to note any possible leakage and any abnormal function during transfer. Do not remove bomb bay tank caps while transfer pump is in operation. 65. Which engine has the instrument vac uum pump on and which has the wing boot pump? · A. No. 1 and 2 engines drive the vacuum pumps actuating the instruments and wing boots. When the selector valve has No. 1 engine driving the instruments, No. 2 engine is auto matically driving the wing boots, or vice-versa. 66. Q. What is your overshoot procedure? A. Procedure: First, apply power. Sec ond, reduce flap setting to ½ or to 20°. Third, raise the gear. The cowl flaps should be ad justed immediately after power is applied. The flaps should be completely raised when safe 266 to do so after the gear is up. 67. Q. How do you ascertain the main gear latch is locked on the visual inspection? A. By seeing that the yellow latch locks are in the lower position in the slot. This can only be seen from waist gun windows when flaps are in the upper position. 68. Q. If you were taking off into a low ceil ing where you would immediately go on instru ments, what precautionary measures would you take before takeoff? A. Ascertain that all gyro instruments are working properly. Taxi, making S turns to determine that bank and turn instrument is operating. Check de-icer boots for operation and propeller anti-icer fluid operation. Also, immediately off the ground, turn on pitot heat ers. The pitot tube heaters should be checked by feel on the ground and then turned off because continual use on ground may damage element. 69. Q. What will result from excessive cowl flap opening? A. Will result in tail buffeting and lazy aileron action. Flap opening of from 10° to 20° is the range where usually the highest buffeting condition occurs. If permissible, a wide-open cow 1 flap setting is better if required for engine cooling rather than a flap setting in the range between 10° and 20°. However, the wide-open cowl flap setting will cut down the performance of the aircraft considerably. 70. Q. If oil dilution is over-used, what is the danger? A. The over-use of this system dilutes the oil to such a light viscosity that the high gasoline content in the oil allows the gas fumes ' to come out the engine breather and into the combustion chambers, constituting a fire haz ard. 71. Q. What would you do if your airspeed indicator failed because of stoppage in the ·passage? A. Ask the bombardier to call airspeed over the interphone. 72. Q. In the event No. 3 engine was feath ered and you were coming in for a landing, what would you do? A. Be sure that the electric auxiliary RESTRICTED hydraulic system was functioning and in oper ation, and open star valve to lower the gear and flaps. 73. Q. Is it necessary to use the fuel booster pumps after takeoff? A. After takeoff, when 1000 feet above the ground, they are not required again until an altitude of 10,000 feet has been reached or when a drop of 2 lb. on the fuel pressure occurs. 7 4. Q. What is likely to happen if an engine backfires with the turbo waste gate closed? A. It is liable to damage the waste gate turbo mechanism and exhaust system. 75. Q. What will happen if you take off or land with the wing de-icer boots inflated? ' A. It will disturb the air flow over the wings, causing the aircraft to act in an abnor mal way and increase the stalling speed. 76. Q. How do you clJ)proach your cruising altitude, from below or from the top? A. From about 500 feet on top. 77. Q. What is meant by flying on the step? A. By flying the airplane in a minimum angle-of-attack attitude. 78. Q. If you set your turbos for 47" mani fold pressure for takeoff at San Diego, would this same setting give you 47"· for takeoff at Salt Lake City, Utah? If not, why? A. No. Because of higher altitude at Salt Lake City, if the turbo lever were set at the same position as San Diego, you would have about 4½" higher manifold pressure at Salt Lake City. 79. Q. What is the trend of the mechanically driven internal supercharger in regard to mani fold pressure drop or increase in relation to increase in altitude? A. The trend is for the manifold pressure to decrease with increase of altitude. 80. Q. Is the exhaust-drive1;1 turbo-super charger's trend in regard to increase in altitude the same as the engine-driven supercharger? A. No. The turbo-supercharger increases manifold pressure with increase in altitude be cause of the density of the air decreasing with altitude, allowing the exhaust gases to escape more readily through the bucket wheel. 81. Q. What would the result be if you took off with the intercoolers closed? RESTRICTED RESTRICTED A. Probably detonation. 82. Q. What is the purpose of the inter coolers? A. To cool the air compressed through the turbo-supercharger. 83. Q. When would you close the intercooler shutters? A. When flying in icing conditions· to control carburetor air temperature. 84. Q. How much load will the tailskid sup port? A. A very small amount. Heavy loads on the tailskid should at all times be avoided. Care must be taken any time the airplane is being towed backwards that the tailskid never touches the ground. 85. Q. In the event you encountered highly turbulent rough air conditions how would you fly the airplane? A. Slow the airplane to 150 mph and use a partial wing flap setting for additional lift and stability. The landing gear may be lowered to avoid too great a decrease in power. 86. Q. In slow flight, such as traffic pattern flying, what is the best wing flap setting? Why? A. 10°. This increases stability of the airplane and also,..lowers the stalling speed. 87. Q. What is likely to occur if excessive airspeed is allowed with a full flap setting? A. Possible springing of the flap tracks or other structural failure would result. The bleed-back valve which is supposed to allow the flaps to retract at excessive airspeeds would not allow the flaps to retract soon enough if the airplane was suddenly allowed to attain an ex cessive airspeed. 88. Q. How tight do you have your copilot snub the throttles on takeoff? A. Tight enough to hold the throttles in position but not so tight that throttles cannot readily be moved in case of emergency. 89. Q. When spinning the turbo bucket wheel by hand, what do you look for? A. Warped bucket wheel, proper bucket wheel clearance, noisy bearing·s, and freedom of movement. 90. Q. Leaking fluid on the outside of landing gear wheel indicates what? A. Indicates a leak in brake line or frac- 261 RESTRICTED tured brake expander bladder. 91. Q. If a wheel wobbles during taxiing, what's wrong? A. Probably a cracked wheel flange. 92. Q. If you smelled burning rubber while retracting the landing gear, what is the prob able cause? A. Nosewheel not lined straight fore and aft, allowing it to rub on structural members of the airplane during retraction. 93. Q. What is the function of the master bar switch? A. It cuts all the magnetos off as well as all electric current unless the generators or auxiliary power unit (APU) are in operation. If they are in operation, you will still have elec tric power but no magnetos. 94. Q. When are the engines ready to run up? A. When the head temperature is 150°C, oil pressure within the operating limit and the oil temperature above 40°C. 95. Q. What is the maximum allowable mag neto rpm drop or engine run-up? · A. 100 rpm •if the engine is smooth. 96. Q. What is the MAC or mean aero dynamic chord? A. MAC is the average chord or width of a tapered wing. 97. Q. Is there a rule-of-thumb method by which the CG of an airplane can be determined without the use of the load adjuster? A. There is no rule-of-thumb method accurate enough to warrant its use. 98. Q .. What is the root chord of a wing? A. The root chord is the distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge at the largest section of a tapered wing. 99. Q. What percent of the MAC is the most forward limit of the CG? 23% . 100. Q. What-percent of the MAC is the most aft limit of the CG? A. 23 % . 101. Q. How was the CG range determined? 268 A. The forward and aft CG limit in percent of the MAC from the leading edge of the MAC is determined by means of flight tests. 102. Q. What is the effect of overloading an airplane? A. Overloading causes higher stalling speeds, results in lowering of the airplane struc tural safety factors, lowers the angle and rate of climb,· decreases ceiling, increases fuel con sumption and lowers the general tire factor of safety. 103. Q. What happens when the CG is too far aft? A. If the CG is too far aft it creates un stable conditions, thereby increasing the tend ency to stall. It definitely limits low power and might very easily affect long-range opti mum speed adversely. In the extreme condition it may even cause a stall during an up-gust. 104. Q. What happens when the CG is too far forward? A. Fuel consumption is increased, great er power is required for the same speed and there is an increased tendency to oscillate as well as to increase dive beyond control. It may cause a critical condition during flap operation. It definitely increases the difficulty in getting the nose up during landing. 105. Q. What is meant by moment? A. Moment is the turning effect exerted by a force or weight about a fulcrum point and is equal to the weight times the distance from the fulcrum to the weight. 106. Q. If on the final approach with throt tles back you accidentally put the propellers in low rpm, what would happen when you ap plied power? A. Absence of usual propeller noise, very slow response in airspeed increase be cause of absence of power, much lower rpm than customary. T.his condition can prove dis astrous if the airplane is being dragged in on the approach or in the event of an overshoot. Do not do it! RESTRICTED AC Power Failure ....................... 193 After-takeoff Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Airspeed Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4 Anti-icing Equipment .................... 151 Armament, Description ................... 23 Autopilot ............................... 161 Auxiliary Power Unit. ................... 131 B-24N ................................. 27 Bailout ................................. 210 Balance, Principles of. ................... 240 Banks, Angle and Speed in. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Before-landing Checklist ................. 84 Before-starting Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Before-takeoff Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Before-taxiing Checklist ................. 46 Belly Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Blowouts ............................... 103 Bomb Bay Doors, Hydraulic Control ...... 129 Emergency Operation ................. 205 Bomb Release, Emergency ................ 205 Bombardier, Duties of ..................... 16 Brake Mean Effective Pressure ............ 117 Brakes, Hydraulic Control ................ 130 Carburetors, Description ................. 113 Icing ................................. 113 Checklist, After-takeoff .................. 60 Before-landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Before-starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Before-takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Before taxiing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 End of Landing Roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Feathering ........................... 197 RESTRICTED ' RESTRICTED Final Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 for Autopilot ......................... 163 Go-around . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Unfeathering ......................... 198 Climbing ..... · .......................... 65 Control Chart ......................... 253 Decreasing Atmospheric Pressure in .... 67 Decreasing Temperature in. . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Engine Heat in ......................... 66 Close-in Approach ...................... 98 Cockpit, Illustrations of ................... 26 Controls, Location of ..................... 26 Copilot, Duties of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Crosswind Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Cruise Control Chart ..................... 254 3-engine .............................. 256 Cruising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Night ................................ 226 Davis Wing, Description .. i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Defrosters .............................. 151 De-icing Equipment ..................... 151 Description, General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Detonation ............................. 120 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Ditching ................................ 213 Dives .................................. 79 Electrical System ............... : ....... 131 Failures .............................. 208 Fires ................................. 219 Electronic Turbo Control ................. 105 269 RESTRICTED Emergency Procedures AC Power Failure ..................... 193 Blowouts ............................. 103 Bomb Bay Doors, Emergency Operation. 205 Bomb Release, Emergency .............. 205 Ditching ............................. 213 Electrical System Failure ............... 208 Engine Failure ........................ 120 Feathering, Emergency ..... , ........... 196 Fires ................................. 217 Inverter Failure ...................... 193 Landings, Emergency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Landing Gear Failures ................. 200 Radio Failure ......................... 227 Wing Flaps, Emergency Operation ...... 205 Engineer, Duties ....................... 17 Engines, Description ..................... 105 Faulty Operation ...................... 121 Fires ................................. 217 Run-up .............................. 53 Engine Failure, Causes of ................. 120 in Landings .......................... 191 in Level Flight ....................... 189 in Traffic ......•...................... 191 on Takeoff ............................ 187 With De-icers on ...................... 189 Exterior Lights ......................... 224 Feathering, Checklist .................... 196 Emergency ........................... 196 Questions and Answers ................. 199 Final Approach Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Final Approach, at Night .. .- .......... : ... 227 Fires ................................... 217 Fire Extinguisher Systems ................ 219 Flares .................................. 221 Flight Characteristics .................... 73 Flight Control Charts .................... 248 Flight Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4 Formation Flying ....................... 231 Formation Stick ........................ 168 Frequency Meter ....................... 177 Fuel System ............................ 135 Fuel Transfer ........................... 137 Go-around . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 With 3 Engines ........................ 193 Gunners, Duties of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 270 Gyro Flux Gate Compass ................. 17 4 Hand Pump, Hydraulic ................... 126 Heating Systems ........................ 14 7 High Performance Takeoff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Takeoff Chart ......................... 250 Hydraulic Pressure Settings .............. 127 Hydraulic System ....................... 123 Failure of ............................ 206 Icing on Aircraft ......................... 151 Inspection, External . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Internal .............................. 36 Instrument Lights, Description ............ 224 Intercooler Shutters, Function of ......... ,. 109 Interphone Equipment ................... 181 Inverter Failure ........................ 193 Landing Gear, Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Emergency Lowering ....... · ........... 200 Hydraulic Control ................ ~ .... 127 Landing Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Landings, Belly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Crosswind .... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Errors in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Descent for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Forced ............................... 99 Night ................................ 227 No-flap ............................... 101 Short-field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 With Damaged N osewheel .............. 102 With Dead Engines .................... 191 With One Main Wheel .................. 102 Without Brakes ....................... 102 Leveling Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Lights, Exterior ......................... 224 Instrument Panel ..................... 224 Limitations, Airspeed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4 Load Adjuster .......................... 243 Load Factor in Banks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Low Visibility Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Maximum Range Control Chart ........... 259 Mean Aerodynamic Chord ................ 241 • Mixture Controls, Description ............. 113 Navigator, Duties of ...................... 13 Night Flying ............................ 222 Nose Gear Failures ...................... 202 Oil Dilution ............................ 135 RESTRICTED Oil System ............................. 133 Overspeeding Turbos .................... 113 Oxygen Systems ........................ 154 Parking ................................ 94 Pilot's Controls, Illustration of ............ 26 Pilot's Direction Indicator ................ 167 Power Changes, Sequence of .............. 117 Power Increase, Sequence for ............. . 118 Power-off Approach ..................... 96 Power Plant ............................ 105 Power Ratings, Definitions ................ 116 Power Reduction, Sequence for ........... 119 Power Settings, Climbing ...... : ........ ·. . 66 Cruising ............................. 71 Effects of ............................. 249 Limits of ............................. 116 3-engine Cruising ..................... 256 Priming ................................ 45 Prohibited Maneuvers ...... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Propellers, Feathering ................... 196 Runway .............................. 194 Synchronizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Unfeathering ......................... 198 Pumps, Hydraulic .. · ..................... 123 Questions and Answers, General .......... 261 Quick Descent for Landing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Radio Equipment ............... .- ....... 176 Compass ............................. 183 Failure, at Night ....................... 227 Radio Operator, Duties of. ............... 17 Recovery From Stalls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Running Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Securing Airplane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 RESTRICTED RESTRICTED Shimmy Damper ........................ 130 Failure of ............................ 130 Signal Equipment ....................... 221 Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Stalling Speeds, Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Stalls .................................. 74 in Turns .............................. 7'( Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Superchargers in Cruising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Synchronizing Propellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Takeoff ................................ 58 Crosswind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 High-performance ...................... 63 Night ................................ 225 Running ............................. 61 Taxiing .......... ·.· .................... 48 Crosswind ............................ 91 Night ................................ 225 Tire Trouble ............................ 103 Traffic, Engine Failure in ................. 191 Trimming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Turbo-Superchargers .................... 105 Electronic Control ..................... 105 Overspeeding ......................... 113 Turns .................................. 76 in Taxiing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 With Dead Engines .................... 190 U nfeathering Checklist .................. 198 Ventilation System ...................... 160 Vision at Night 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B-24: Pilot Training Manual for the Liberator

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Aviation Museum of New Hampshire

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